Ben Jonson’s Volpone, first performed in 1606, stands as a quintessential Jacobean city comedy, a biting Satire that dissects the moral decay and avarice rampant in Venetian society, serving as a thinly veiled critique of contemporary London. At its core, the play is a masterclass in allegorical naming, with each major character bearing a name derived from an animal. The titular character, Volpone, is given the Latin name for “fox,” and the play itself is often subtitled “The Fox.” This seemingly simple designation is far from coincidental; it is a profound and multi-layered symbolic choice that immediately signals the protagonist’s nature, defines the play’s central conflict, and illuminates its overarching satirical and moralistic themes.
The choice of “The Fox” as the emblematic identity for Volpone is central to understanding Jonson’s dramatic intent. It establishes a framework rooted in the tradition of beast fables and medieval bestiaries, where animal characteristics are employed to allegorize human nature and vices. In Volpone’s case, the fox is a creature universally associated with cunning, guile, and predatory intelligence. By labelling his protagonist “The Fox,” Jonson not only sets the stage for a narrative dominated by elaborate trickery and deception but also primes the audience to view the world of the play through the lens of a natural, albeit brutal, hierarchy of predator and prey, where human beings, driven by their base instincts, behave no better than animals.
The Application of “The Fox” to Volpone’s Character
The direct application of the term “Fox” to Volpone is evident in every facet of his character and actions throughout the play. His entire modus operandi revolves around the sophisticated art of deception, a trait synonymous with the vulpine nature.
Cunning and Deception as Primary Weapons
Volpone’s most striking characteristic, directly mirroring that of a fox, is his extraordinary cunning and his masterful deployment of elaborate deceptions. From the play’s opening, Volpone establishes his grand scheme: feigning a mortal illness and approaching death, he meticulously creates the illusion that he is on the verge of bequeathing his vast wealth to one of the “legacy-hunters” – Voltore (the vulture), Corbaccio (the raven), and Corvino (the crow). This charade is not a simple lie but a highly theatrical performance, requiring meticulous planning, convincing execution, and the active participation of his parasite, Mosca. He revels in the spectacle of his supposed infirmity, playing the part of the dying invalid with perverse delight, even demanding expensive gifts from his hopeful heirs, all while perfectly healthy and enjoying the fruits of his manipulation. His ability to maintain this prolonged deception, despite repeated visits from the increasingly desperate legacy-hunters, speaks to a deeply ingrained slyness and psychological acumen akin to a fox outsmarting its pursuers.
Furthermore, Volpone’s cunning extends beyond this initial stratagem. When faced with the threat of exposure, particularly during the two highly dramatic courtroom scenes, he proves remarkably resourceful in concocting new lies and counter-accusations. His quick thinking allows him to turn the tables on his accusers, fabricating stories that twist the truth to his advantage. Even when his plans seem to unravel, as when Mosca threatens to betray him, Volpone’s immediate impulse is to devise an even more audacious scheme – disinheriting himself and naming Mosca his heir – solely to watch the legacy-hunters squirm further, revealing a delight in the psychological torment he inflicts. This capacity for intricate, multi-layered trickery, executed with impressive self-control and a keen understanding of human weaknesses, is the very essence of the fox.
Predatory Nature and Exploitation
The fox is a predator, and Volpone’s character is fundamentally predatory. He doesn’t merely deceive; he actively preys upon the insatiable avarice and desperate hopes of Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino. His “game” is not just about accumulating wealth, but about the thrill of the chase, the intellectual stimulation of outmaneuvering his victims, and the perverse pleasure of watching them debase themselves. He understands that their greed makes them blind, rendering them easy targets. He exploits their deepest desires for material gain, pushing them to commit increasingly immoral acts: Voltore commits perjury, Corbaccio disinherits his own son, and Corvino attempts to prostitute his virtuous wife, Celia.
Volpone’s actions are driven by a profound cynicism about human nature, particularly about the corrupting power of gold. He views the legacy-hunters not as individuals with inherent worth, but as embodiments of a single vice – greed – and thus as mere instruments for his amusement and enrichment. His predatory instinct is not limited to wealth; it extends to power and even lust, as seen in his aggressive pursuit of Celia. His desire to possess her, despite her virtue, is another manifestation of his insatiable appetite to consume and dominate. He stalks her, traps her, and attempts to force her, much like a fox cornering its prey.
Slyness, Stealth, and Adaptability
A fox operates with stealth and subtlety, often working under the cover of darkness or disguise. Volpone embodies this through his reliance on elaborate disguises and his masterful control of appearances. His feigned illness is itself a form of disguise. Later, to escape the consequences of his actions or to advance his schemes, he adopts other personas, such as a mountebank, Scoto of Mantua, selling a quack cure. This disguise allows him to observe the world outside his house, interact with his victims without being recognized, and even attempt to lure Celia. His ability to seamlessly slip into different roles, altering his voice, mannerisms, and even physical appearance, highlights his exceptional adaptability and theatricality, mirroring the fox’s ability to blend into its environment or change tactics as needed.
Even when confronted in the public arena of the courtroom, Volpone attempts to use slyness to his advantage. He tries to escape by feigning temporary madness or by maintaining his initial charade with renewed vigor. His resourcefulness in these high-stakes situations, though ultimately failing, demonstrates his constant mental agility and determination to control the narrative, much like a fox escaping a trap by gnawing off its own leg.
Symbolic Implications within the Play’s Context
The subtitle “The Fox” and the pervasive animalistic naming scheme employed by Jonson are deeply significant, functioning on multiple symbolic levels to enrich the play’s satirical depth and moral message.
The Bestiary Tradition and Dehumanization
Jonson’s deliberate use of animal names – Volpone (fox), Mosca (fly), Voltore (vulture), Corbaccio (raven), Corvino (crow), Peregrine (pilgrim/falcon) – immediately situates the play within the ancient literary tradition of the bestiary or animal fable. This tradition uses animal characteristics to represent human types and moral qualities, often with didactic intent. By stripping his characters of conventional human names and assigning them zoological labels, Jonson achieves several powerful effects:
- Dehumanization: The animal names reduce the characters to their base, instinctual natures, emphasizing their lack of higher moral or spiritual qualities. They are driven by primal urges like greed, lust, and predation, rather than reason or virtue. This dehumanization makes them ripe for Jonson’s scathing Satire.
- Clear Allegory: The names serve as immediate shorthand for character traits. A “vulture” is a scavenger, a “raven” a harbinger of ill omen (or a greedy scavenger), a “crow” another scavenger, and a “fly” a parasitic nuisance. These names instantly convey the moral corruption and parasitic relationships that define the characters.
- A World of Instinct and Predation: The entire Venetian society depicted in the play, especially its legal and social elite, is presented as a moral jungle where the strong (the fox) prey on the weak (the virtuous Celia and Bonario), and various scavengers (the legacy hunters and Mosca) feed off the decaying carcass of wealth. The “fox” thrives in this ecosystem because it is populated by creatures equally driven by unbridled appetite.
Satire of Human Greed and Moral Corruption
The fox, being an animal of cunning and acquisitiveness, serves as a powerful symbol for the central theme of the play: the corrosive power of insatiable greed (avarice) and the pervasive moral corruption it engenders. Volpone, as the fox, is the master orchestrator of a system where wealth is the ultimate god, and human dignity, familial bonds, and even basic morality are sacrificed at its altar. He doesn’t just represent greed himself; he actively exposes and exploits the greed in others. The “fox” thrives because the “vulture,” “raven,” and “crow” are so consumed by their own desires for his supposed wealth that they willingly humiliate themselves, betray their families, and perjure themselves.
Jonson uses Volpone as a mirror to reflect the depravity of his society. The play suggests that while Volpone is the cunning architect of deception, the victims are equally culpable due to their own overwhelming desire for unearned riches. The fox’s machinations simply bring to the surface the inherent rottenness that already exists within them. The pursuit of wealth becomes a destructive obsession, turning human beings into base, conniving animals, perfectly embodied by the foxy protagonist.
The Nature of Deception and Illusion
The fox, as a creature of illusion and trickery, symbolizes the pervasive nature of deception in the world of Volpone. The entire play is a carefully constructed edifice of lies, disguises, and false appearances. Volpone’s feigned illness is the master illusion, but almost every character participates in some form of dissimulation: Voltore’s legal rhetoric is a facade for his opportunism, Corbaccio feigns paternal care while plotting to disinherit his son, Corvino forces a pretense of honor on his wife, and Mosca is the ultimate chameleon, shifting loyalties and identities at will.
The “fox” character thus highlights that truth is an elusive commodity in this society, easily manipulated for personal gain. The play demonstrates how outward appearances are constantly misleading, and how cunning minds can twist reality to their advantage. Ultimately, the downfall of the “fox” and his “fly” partner comes when their web of deceit becomes too intricate to control, illustrating that while deception can bring temporary power, it is inherently unstable and ultimately self-destructive.
The Pursuit of Pleasure and the Game
While the play’s primary focus is on gold, Volpone’s “fox-like” behavior is also driven by a profound desire for pleasure and the thrill of the “game.” For Volpone, the accumulation of wealth is less about security or comfort and more about the excitement of the chase and the power it affords him over others. He describes his gold as his “saint” and his “soul,” but also emphasizes the delight he takes in “sport” with his legacy-hunters. The fox, known for its playful yet cunning nature, perfectly encapsulates this blend of desire for material gain and the sheer joy of the manipulative exercise. His schemes are elaborate theatrical productions, and he savors every moment of his victims’ humiliation. This pursuit of pleasure through manipulation is a dark form of entertainment for Volpone, transforming his avarice into a perverse art form.
Justice and the Trickster’s Downfall
Traditionally, the fox in fables is often outsmarted or caught in its own traps. Jonson adheres to this moralistic trajectory. While Volpone is initially triumphant in his cunning, his arrogance and overconfidence – amplified by Mosca’s parasitic ambition – ultimately lead to his downfall. The “fox” becomes too greedy, too proud of his own cleverness, leading him to engineer a final, unnecessary trick (disinheriting himself in favor of Mosca) that backfires spectacularly.
The judicial system, however flawed and corrupt it may appear initially, ultimately serves as an instrument of justice. The punishments meted out to Volpone and his co-conspirators are severe and symbolically apt. Volpone is sentenced to “lie in prison, fettered, and suffer the shame of a convicted felon,” and to be stripped of his wealth, which is transferred to a hospital for incurables. This final humiliation, where the cunning fox is caged and rendered powerless, highlights Jonson’s didactic purpose: even the most ingenious deception cannot escape ultimate retribution, and those who live by their wits, especially for wicked purposes, will eventually fall victim to their own hubris. The fox, symbolic of unrestrained cunning, demonstrates that unchecked cleverness, divorced from morality, is ultimately self-defeating.
The Interplay with Mosca, “The Fly”
The dynamic between the “fox” (Volpone) and the “fly” (Mosca) is crucial to the symbolic interpretation. Mosca, the parasitic scavenger, relies entirely on Volpone’s operations to thrive. The fly is small, irritating, and often overlooked, but can carry disease and, in this context, can bring down a larger, seemingly more powerful creature. Mosca’s ambition, his ability to mirror Volpone’s own cunning, and his eventual attempt to usurp his master, serve as a potent symbol of how unchecked villainy can turn on itself. The fox, for all its cleverness, is ultimately undone by the very creature it nurtured and empowered. This highlights that no matter how cunning the “fox” may be, there is always a more insidious, parasitic element that can undermine it, symbolizing the precariousness of power built on deceit and the ultimate danger of misplaced trust, even among the morally bankrupt. Mosca represents the ultimate opportunistic parasite, a creature that feeds on the moral decay orchestrated by the fox.
The subtitle “The Fox” for Jonson’s Volpone is thus far more than a mere descriptive label; it is a foundational symbolic anchor for the entire play. It immediately frames the protagonist as a creature of unparalleled cunning, deception, and predatory instinct, defining his interactions with the other characters who are similarly reduced to their base animalistic drives. Jonson expertly draws upon the ancient tradition of the bestiary to create a world where human beings, consumed by avarice, behave no better than animals in a moral jungle.
This strategic naming underscores the play’s central satirical thrust, exposing the pervasive moral corruption of a society where wealth is worshipped above all else. Volpone’s “fox-like” nature serves as a potent mirror, reflecting the depths of depravity to which individuals will sink in their pursuit of gold, while simultaneously highlighting the perverse pleasure and intellectual game inherent in such schemes. Ultimately, “The Fox” also foreshadows the protagonist’s inevitable downfall, reinforcing Jonson’s didactic message that even the most ingenious trickster cannot evade the consequences of unchecked hubris and immoral cunning. The enduring power of Jonson’s Volpone lies not only in its sharp wit and intricate plot but also in the profound symbolic resonance imbued by the titular “Fox,” making it a timeless commentary on human nature.