Ben Jonson’s Volpone, first performed in 1606, stands as a quintessential Jacobean comedy, celebrated for its sharp satire, intricate plot, and vibrant characterization. The play delves into the depths of human avarice and deceit, masterfully employing a cast of characters whose very names betray their animalistic natures. Central to this allegorical framework is the titular character, Volpone, whose identity is explicitly reinforced by the play’s widely recognized subtitle, “The Fox.” This seemingly simple epithet is far more than a mere descriptive tag; it is a profound symbolic identifier that encapsulates Volpone’s character, actions, motivations, and ultimately, his fate. The choice of “Fox” immediately evokes a rich tapestry of associations from folklore, fables, and popular imagination, setting the stage for a play steeped in cunning, predation, and moral inversion.

The subtitle “The Fox” is crucial to understanding the thematic core of Volpone. It establishes a direct link to the ancient and widespread tradition of animal fables, particularly the medieval Roman de Fauvel and Reynard the Fox cycles. In these narratives, the fox is a recurring archetype: a creature renowned for its extraordinary cunning, guile, and predatory intelligence. Unlike brute force, the fox achieves its ends through deception, trickery, and the exploitation of others’ weaknesses. Jonson consciously taps into this established iconography, allowing the audience to immediately grasp the essence of Volpone’s character even before he utters a single word. His character is not just fox-like; he embodies the very spirit of the fox as understood in centuries of popular imagination, making him a personification of clever, amoral opportunism.

The Enduring Symbolism of the Fox in Fable and Folklore

The figure of the fox, particularly Reynard, has been a prominent character in European folklore since the Middle Ages. The Roman de Fauvel (1310-1314) and the various Reynard the Fox cycles, which originated in the 12th century, popularized the image of the fox as a master trickster, outwitting more powerful but less intelligent animals like the wolf and the bear, and preying upon the gullibility of chickens and other vulnerable creatures. Key attributes consistently associated with the fox in these narratives include:

  • Cunning and Deceit: The fox’s primary weapon is its intellect, employed not for noble purposes but for self-gain through elaborate stratagems and misdirection.
  • Predatory Nature: The fox is a hunter, a carnivore that thrives by consuming others, often those weaker or less perceptive. This is not mere survival but an act of exploitation.
  • Gluttony and Greed: Reynard is often portrayed as insatiably hungry, constantly seeking to fill his belly, a trait that translates metaphorically to a boundless desire for wealth and material possessions.
  • Charm and Persuasion: Foxes in fables often possess a deceptive eloquence, using flattery and clever words to lull their victims into a false sense of security.
  • Amorality: The fox operates outside conventional moral boundaries, driven solely by self-interest and a desire for immediate gratification, showing no remorse for its deceptions.

Jonson’s choice of “The Fox” as a subtitle is not coincidental but a deliberate, sophisticated literary device. It sets the thematic tone for the play, immediately signaling that the audience is entering a world where human morality is inverted, and base instincts dictate behavior. Volpone is not merely a cunning man; he is the embodiment of the fox, operating within a human society that, through its own greed and folly, becomes his hunting ground.

Volpone’s Embodiment of “The Fox”

Volpone’s character perfectly aligns with the symbolic attributes of the fox:

  1. Master of Deception: Volpone’s central modus operandi is an elaborate, prolonged deception. He feigns mortal illness, often near death, to entice a trio of fortune-hunters – Voltore (the vulture), Corbaccio (the raven/crow), and Corvino (the carrion crow) – into believing they will be named his sole heir. This requires not just initial pretense but sustained performance, adapting his “illness” to each visitor, simulating various ailments from paralysis to near-fatal convulsions. His ability to maintain this charade, often in extremely convincing detail, marks him as a consummate actor and a master of disguise, much like the elusive and shape-shifting fox of folklore. He relishes the intellectual challenge of the deception, the thrill of outsmarting his prey, deriving pleasure not just from the potential wealth but from the very act of cunning.

  2. Predatory Exploitation: Volpone is a predator whose prey is human avarice. He does not physically harm his victims, but he preys on their most base desires: their insatiable greed for wealth. He lures them in with the promise of inheritance, watching them debase themselves, offering increasingly extravagant gifts – and even their own family members – in the hope of securing his favor. He manipulates their hopes and fears, turning their own covetousness into a weapon against them. His relationship with his “clients” is akin to a fox luring unsuspecting fowl into its den; they enter willingly, drawn by the bait, only to be exploited and mocked.

  3. Insatiable Greed and Sensuality: Like the gluttonous Reynard, Volpone is driven by an insatiable appetite. His wealth, already immense, is not enough. He delights in the process of acquiring more, in the “sport” of cozening others. His desire extends beyond gold to sensual pleasures – music, rich food, exotic objects, and ultimately, the attempted seduction of Celia. This boundless appetite, a characteristic often associated with the fox, signifies a lack of moral restraint and a pursuit of gratification at any cost. He is a collector of luxury, but more importantly, a collector of human folly.

  4. Cunning Intellect and Eloquence: Volpone possesses a sharp, articulate mind. His language is often grandiloquent and persuasive, particularly when he is playing his role as the dying man, or when he attempts to woo Celia. His eloquence, however, is a tool for manipulation, not for truth. He constructs elaborate lies with rhetorical flourish, weaving tales that convince his greedy visitors of his impending demise and their imminent fortune. This deceptive use of intellect is a hallmark of the fox, which relies on wit rather than strength.

  5. Lack of Moral Conscience: Volpone operates entirely outside ethical considerations. He feels no remorse for deceiving or humiliating others. His world is devoid of genuine affection, trust, or moral responsibility. His interactions are transactional, based purely on exploitation and control. This amoral stance is characteristic of the fox, which functions purely on instinct and self-preservation, without any inherent sense of right or wrong in human terms.

Mosca: The Parasitic Fly and Fellow Predator

Volpone’s identity as “The Fox” is further reinforced by the dynamic with his servant, Mosca, whose name means “fly” or “parasite.” While Volpone is the grand orchestrator, the primary predator, Mosca is the indispensable accomplice, the parasite that feeds off his master’s schemes but also, subtly, off the victims. Mosca is nimble, adaptable, and supremely opportunistic, moving swiftly between Volpone and his gulls, whispering false hopes and encouraging their self-abasement. The “fly” epithet suggests a creature that thrives on decay and feeds off others, but also one that can be a nuisance, eventually turning against its host.

Indeed, Mosca’s own ambition grows throughout the play, culminating in his audacious attempt to seize Volpone’s fortune for himself. This betrayal, where the parasite attempts to devour the host, is a crucial turning point, highlighting the inherent instability and self-destructive nature of a world built on deceit. Mosca, in his own way, is also fox-like, embodying a secondary, even more ruthless, form of cunning. His betrayal of Volpone underscores that a world dominated by fox-like behavior ultimately consumes itself.

The Animalistic Menagerie: Reinforcing the “Food Chain” Metaphor

Jonson extends the animalistic naming convention to the other characters, creating a vivid “food chain” that complements Volpone’s identity as the apex predator:

  • Voltore (Vulture): The lawyer, a scavenger who preys on the dying and the dead, eager to feast on Volpone’s supposed remains. Vultures are synonymous with opportunism and a macabre patience.
  • Corbaccio (Raven/Crow): An old, decrepit man, as dark and ominous as his name suggests. Ravens are associated with ill omens and carrion, further emphasizing the predatory scavenging of the heirs. He is willing to disinherit his own son for Volpone’s wealth, a grotesque act of unnatural avarice.
  • Corvino (Carrion Crow): The merchant, another scavenger, characterized by his extreme jealousy and willingness to sacrifice his wife’s honor for gold. The carrion crow emphasizes a base, foul form of scavenging.
  • Peregrine (Falcon/Pilgrim): The English traveler, an outsider whose name suggests both a wanderer and a bird of prey (peregrine falcon), but in this context, he is the observer who remains untainted by the Venetian corruption, ultimately bringing about the exposure of Sir Politic Would-Be.
  • Celia (Heavenly): Her name is a stark contrast to the animalistic names, suggesting purity and innocence, making her the primary victim of the animalistic desires surrounding her.
  • Bonario (Goodly): Like Celia, his name signifies virtue, representing the moral counterpoint to the rampant vice.

This consistent use of animal names creates a grotesque allegorical landscape. Volpone, “The Fox,” is the cunning mastermind, orchestrating the actions of his “vultures” and “crows,” who squabble over the spoils. The animal names are not arbitrary; they are meticulously chosen to reflect the characters’ moral states, their relationships to wealth, and their predatory instincts. They highlight the dehumanizing effects of avarice, transforming human beings into creatures driven solely by base appetites.

Thematic Implications: Satire and Justice

The subtitle “The Fox” is instrumental in conveying Jonson’s satirical critique of Jacobean society. Volpone’s character embodies the moral decay, the rampant materialism, and the corruption that Jonson observed in his contemporary world. The play suggests that when society prioritizes wealth above all else, human beings descend to their most primitive, animalistic selves. The cunning of the fox, usually a source of amusement in fables, becomes sinister when transferred to the human realm, revealing a society where virtue is scorned and deceit is celebrated as a form of intelligence.

Furthermore, the “Fox” archetype contributes significantly to the play’s exploration of justice and poetic retribution. While the fox in fables often escapes unscathed, Jonson ensures that his human fox faces a fitting punishment. Volpone’s elaborate scheme, born of his fox-like cunning, ultimately unravels due to his excessive pride and his inability to stop playing the game. His final, ultimate deception – feigning his death and declaring Mosca his heir – is his undoing. It is a moment of fatal hubris, where the fox overestimates his own cleverness and underestimates the potential for the parasite to turn on him.

Volpone’s punishment, being confined to prison and stripped of his wealth, is symbolic. He is reduced to a state of literal animal confinement, trapped within the very system he sought to exploit. His “fox-like” nature, which gave him freedom and mastery, ultimately leads to his enslavement. This outcome emphasizes Jonson’s moral stance: unchecked cunning, even if initially successful, leads to self-destruction. The play, therefore, serves as a cautionary tale, demonstrating that while the fox may thrive for a time, its reliance on deceit is inherently unsustainable and will eventually lead to its downfall.

Structural and Dramatic Function of the Subtitle

Beyond its symbolic depth, the subtitle “The Fox” serves several important structural and dramatic functions:

  • Audience Expectation: It immediately primes the audience for the type of character Volpone will be and the nature of the play’s conflict. Spectators familiar with the Reynard cycle would anticipate a story of intricate trickery and moral ambiguity.
  • Character Introduction: It acts as a shorthand for Volpone’s character, providing an instant summary of his essential qualities without needing extensive exposition.
  • Thematic Foreshadowing: It hints at the play’s central themes of deception, greed, and the animalistic impulses underlying human behavior.
  • Allegorical Framework: It firmly places Volpone within the tradition of allegorical literature, where characters often represent broader ideas or moral qualities. This allows Jonson to deliver sharp social commentary through the guise of a witty, yet dark, comedy.
  • Reinforcement of Jonson’s Humours Theory: While not a strict “humours” play in the conventional sense, the animalistic names align with Jonson’s broader interest in fixed, dominant character traits, providing clear labels for the various forms of avarice and depravity.

The subtitle “The Fox” is far more than a simple descriptive label for Volpone; it is the very essence of his character, informing his actions, motivations, and the satirical thrust of the play. Jonson masterfully employs the rich, ancient symbolism of the cunning trickster fox to create a character who embodies unchecked avarice and manipulative intelligence. Volpone’s schemes, his predatory relationship with his victims, his insatiable desire for wealth, and his ultimate downfall are all inextricably linked to his identity as “The Fox.”

This allegorical naming convention, extended to the entire cast, transforms the human drama into a darkly comedic fable, where society’s pursuit of material gain reduces individuals to their most base, animalistic instincts. The play thereby becomes a profound commentary on the moral decay of Jonson’s Jacobean England, a world where cunning triumphs temporarily but ultimately consumes itself. Volpone, “The Fox,” stands as a timeless archetype of the intelligent yet morally bankrupt trickster, whose eventual capture and confinement serves as a potent, ironic commentary on the self-destructive nature of unbridled greed and deceit.