Mulk Raj Anand’s 1935 novel, Untouchable, stands as a monumental work in the landscape of Indian English literature, pioneering the exploration of social injustice with an unflinching gaze. It is a work that not only catapulted Anand into the literary limelight but also forced a nascent nation and the broader global conscience to confront the brutal realities of the caste system, particularly the dehumanizing practice of untouchability. Through the intimate portrayal of a single day in the life of its protagonist, Bakha, a young latrine cleaner, Anand masterfully weaves a narrative that is both deeply personal and broadly resonant, exposing the hypocrisy, cruelty, and psychological torment inherent in a deeply stratified society.
The novel’s strength lies in its profound empathy and its stark realism, depicting the daily indignities, aspirations, and frustrations of an individual trapped by an accident of birth. It is a powerful indictment of a social order that relegates a segment of humanity to perpetual impurity, denying them basic rights, respect, and dignity. This critical commentary will delve into Untouchable’s narrative structure, characterization, thematic depth, its social and historical context, and its lasting significance, while also acknowledging its artistic strengths and perceived limitations, thereby offering a comprehensive assessment of its place in literary and social discourse.
Context and Genesis of a Narrative
Mulk Raj Anand, a prominent figure among the trio of founding fathers of Indian English fiction alongside R.K. Narayan and Raja Rao, was deeply influenced by the social and political ferment of pre-independence India. Having witnessed the injustices faced by the lowest strata of society, particularly the scavengers and sweepers who were deemed ‘untouchable’, Anand was compelled to give voice to their suffering. Untouchable emerged from this profound sense of social indignation and a commitment to progressive ideals, particularly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi‘s anti-untouchability campaigns and Anand’s own socialist leanings acquired during his time in Europe. The novel’s genesis is rooted in Anand’s personal experiences and observations, lending it an authenticity that resonates powerfully with readers. It was a bold move at a time when Indian English literature was still finding its footing, choosing to highlight a taboo subject with raw honesty. The caste system, with its rigid hierarchy and concepts of purity and pollution, was not merely a social stratification but a religiously sanctioned form of discrimination, making the plight of the ‘untouchables’ particularly dire. They were ostracized, confined to specific menial jobs, denied access to public spaces like wells and temples, and subjected to constant humiliation. Anand’s novel brings this invisible suffering to the forefront, forcing an uncomfortable confrontation with a deeply entrenched social ill.
Narrative Structure and Stylistic Choices
One of the most striking features of Untouchable is its narrative structure, which unfolds over the course of a single, eventful day in Bakha’s life. This confined timeframe serves to heighten the intensity of his experiences, immersing the reader directly into the relentless cycle of indignity and discrimination he faces. From the moment Bakha wakes up, his day is marked by a series of encounters that underscore his social ostracization: fetching water from a shared well where he must wait for a high-caste Hindu to pour it for him, cleaning latrines, and being constantly reminded of his ‘untouchable’ status through shouts of “Posh! Posh!” (Keep away!). This day-in-the-life structure emphasizes the cyclical and inescapable nature of Bakha’s oppression, preventing any romanticization of his suffering and instead foregrounding the brutal monotony of his existence.
Anand employs a style rooted in realism and naturalism, characterized by detailed descriptions of Bakha’s physical environment and internal state. The prose is unembellished, direct, and often stark, mirroring the harsh realities it depicts. Anand vividly describes the squalor of the untouchables’ living quarters, the physical act of scavenging, and the sensory details (especially the pervasive smell of excrement) that define Bakha’s world. While not strictly a stream of consciousness novel, Anand masterfully allows the reader access to Bakha’s inner thoughts, hopes, and frustrations. We see his desire for cleanliness, his aspiration to wear European clothes, his yearning for education, and his deep-seated confusion and anger at the injustice of his birth. This internal monologue allows Bakha to emerge not merely as a symbol of oppression but as a complex individual capable of introspection and yearning for dignity.
Anand’s use of language is particularly noteworthy. Writing in English, he successfully conveys the nuances of an Indian sensibility and the realities of Indian life. He often incorporates Hindustani expressions, idioms, and speech patterns, sometimes directly translating them, which lends authenticity and a distinct flavor to the dialogue and narrative. This linguistic choice was crucial in making the English language capable of expressing the specific cultural and social realities of India, a pioneering effort at the time. The stark contrast between the eloquent pronouncements of the upper-caste characters and the rudimentary, often submissive, language of the untouchables further highlights the power dynamics at play.
Characterization: Bakha and the Cast of Oppressors
At the heart of Untouchable is Bakha, a character who embodies the collective suffering and nascent aspirations of the Dalit community. Bakha is not a passive victim; he is a young man filled with contradictory desires and emotions. He yearns for a life beyond the squalor and the stigma associated with his hereditary profession. His fascination with English clothes and the “sahib-like” lifestyle represents his desire for upward mobility, cleanliness, and acceptance – a yearning for a world where he is not defined by his impurity. Yet, he is constantly brought back to earth by the harsh realities of his existence. His internal conflict is a central focus: he oscillates between despair and defiance, between a desire for revenge and a resigned acceptance of his fate. His moments of anger and frustration are palpable, but they are often quickly suppressed by the ingrained habit of submission and fear of violent repercussions. Bakha becomes a universal figure of the marginalized, his plight resonating beyond the specific context of caste.
The supporting characters in the novel serve to illuminate different facets of the caste system and the society that perpetuates it. Bakha’s family – his pragmatic mother, Lakhsmi, and his vulnerable sister, Sohini – further illustrate the daily struggles and additional burden of gender-based discrimination faced by Dalit women. Sohini’s molestation by the priest, Pundit Kali Nath, is a particularly harrowing incident that exposes the extreme vulnerability and lack of recourse for Dalit women, who were often subjected to sexual exploitation by upper-caste men with impunity. The incident not only highlights the moral bankruptcy of the religious establishment but also Bakha’s impotent rage and the systemic powerlessness of his community.
The upper-caste characters are portrayed with nuance, revealing the various ways in which prejudice operates. Pundit Kali Nath is the epitome of religious hypocrisy, using his position to exploit and oppress. Colonel Hutchinson, the British Salvation Army officer, represents a colonial presence with a benevolent but ultimately ineffectual desire to convert Bakha to Christianity, failing to grasp the deeper societal implications of caste. Charat Singh, the kind hockey player, offers Bakha a moment of human connection and a gift (a hockey stick) but remains largely detached from the systemic issues. These characters, whether overtly cruel or superficially kind, collectively demonstrate the entrenched nature of discrimination, which operates on multiple levels – religious, social, and economic. They show how ingrained prejudice is, even in those who may not intend direct harm.
Major Themes and Social Commentary
The most pervasive theme in Untouchable is, undoubtedly, the devastating impact of caste discrimination and untouchability. Anand meticulously details how this social construct dictates every aspect of Bakha’s life: his physical movements (he must shout warnings to avoid polluting others), his access to resources (denied water from a common well), his occupation (bound to manual scavenging), and his psychological well-being (internalized shame, self-loathing, and constant fear). The novel vividly portrays how the concept of purity and pollution, central to the caste system, is used to justify the dehumanization of an entire community. The very touch, shadow, or even the voice of an untouchable is deemed polluting, leading to their complete social ostracization.
Anand also launches a powerful critique of the hypocrisy of religion. The temple incident, where the priest falsely accuses Bakha of polluting the temple after Sohini’s molestation, is a scathing indictment of how religious institutions, ostensibly promoting spirituality, often perpetuate social injustice and immorality. The novel highlights the profound disconnect between religious tenets of compassion and the oppressive practices sanctioned in the name of faith.
Beyond critique, Untouchable explores the search for dignity and identity amidst overwhelming oppression. Bakha’s aspirations, however small, are acts of defiance against a system designed to deny him these fundamental human rights.
The novel also grapples with the question of solutions to untouchability. Anand presents three distinct alternatives that Bakha encounters towards the end of his day, each critically examined for its efficacy:
- Christianity: Presented by Colonel Hutchinson, this option offers spiritual equality and a promise of salvation. However, Bakha finds it alien, culturally disconnected from his roots, and ultimately insufficient to address the deep-seated social prejudice he faces. He observes that even Christian converts often carry the baggage of caste.
- Gandhism (Social Reform): Bakha encounters a speech by Mahatma Gandhi, who advocates for a change of heart among caste Hindus, promoting brotherhood, and renaming untouchables as ‘Harijans’ (Children of God). While Bakha is drawn to Gandhi’s message of love and non-violence, he also perceives its limitations. Gandhi’s emphasis on self-purification and moral persuasion, while powerful, might be too slow and idealistic to dismantle the systemic oppression that defines Bakha’s daily reality. It relies on the oppressors’ conscience, which can be elusive.
- Modern Technology and Socialism: The most radical solution is proposed by a young poet, Iqbal Nath (who represents a more modernist, socialist viewpoint). He argues that the real solution lies in the introduction of flush latrines and modern sewage systems. This technological advancement would eliminate the need for manual scavenging, thereby removing the very basis of the untouchables’ ‘unclean’ profession and, by extension, the stigma associated with them. This solution is pragmatic, material, and structural, hinting at Anand’s own leanings towards social and economic transformation rather than purely spiritual or moral reform. It suggests that true liberation requires not just a change of heart, but a fundamental alteration of the material conditions of existence.
Strengths and Enduring Relevance
Untouchable remains a seminal work for several compelling reasons. Its primary strength lies in its pioneering role as the first major Indian English novel to foreground the Dalit experience with such intensity and detail. It broke literary ground by making the marginalized central to its narrative. The novel’s emotional impact is undeniable; it successfully evokes deep empathy for Bakha’s plight and generates a profound sense of outrage at the injustice he endures. Anand’s commitment to realism and authenticity ensures that the narrative feels grounded and believable, avoiding sentimentality while delivering a powerful emotional punch.
Artistically, the novel is a testament to Anand’s skill in characterization and narrative construction. Bakha is a memorable protagonist whose internal struggle mirrors a larger societal malaise. The tight, single-day structure provides a focused and intense examination of a critical issue.
Perhaps its most enduring strength is its timeless relevance. While set in 1930s India, the themes of discrimination, the search for human dignity, the hypocrisy of power structures, and the efficacy of different approaches to social reform resonate globally. The novel continues to be a vital text for understanding the historical roots of caste discrimination in India and for discussing issues of social justice, human rights, and systemic oppression in any context. It serves as a stark reminder of how deeply prejudice can be ingrained and how insidious its effects can be.
Limitations and Criticisms
Despite its immense strengths, Untouchable is not without its criticisms. One common critique revolves around its perceived didacticism. Some argue that the novel, particularly towards the end with the exposition of the three solutions through speeches, verges on being a social tract or propaganda rather than purely artistic literature. The solutions are presented in a somewhat academic manner, which can detract from the organic flow of the narrative and Bakha’s personal journey.
The ending has also been a point of contention. Bakha is left pondering the three solutions, a moment of unresolved contemplation. While this open-endedness realistically reflects the complex and ongoing nature of social reform, some readers might find it artistically less satisfying or conclusive. The technological solution, while pragmatic, can feel somewhat like a deus ex machina presented without a clear path to implementation.
Another critical perspective, particularly from contemporary Dalit literature and scholarship, questions the novel’s voice and agency. While Anand empathizes deeply with Bakha, some argue that the narrative, written by an upper-caste author, ultimately serves as an appeal to the conscience of the dominant castes rather than truly empowering the voice of the untouchable. Later Dalit writers often emphasize direct self-representation and articulation of their own agency and resistance, which might differ from Anand’s somewhat sympathetic but external portrayal. Anand’s Bakha, while complex, does not fully embody a spirit of sustained collective resistance or radical self-assertion that characterises some later Dalit literary movements.
Finally, while Anand’s “Indian English” is often praised, some critics might find it occasionally feels forced or stilted, though this is a minor point and often subjective. The limited scope of the single-day narrative, while contributing to its intensity, also means that the novel cannot explore the broader historical evolution of the caste system or the diverse experiences within the Dalit community beyond Bakha’s immediate environment.
Conclusion
Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable remains a seminal and powerful work, a beacon of social realism that courageously cast light on one of India’s most entrenched and brutal social injustices. Its genius lies in its ability to humanize the ‘untouchable’ experience through the vivid portrayal of Bakha, transforming a statistical abstraction into a relatable individual whose aspirations and suffering resonate deeply. The novel’s tight narrative structure, empathetic characterization, and unflinching realism combined to create a work of profound emotional impact and enduring social relevance.
The novel’s exploration of potential solutions – spiritual, moral, and technological – highlights the complexity of social reform and Anand’s own progressive vision. While offering no easy answers, it compels the reader to confront the multifaceted nature of oppression and the various pathways to liberation. Untouchable stands as a testament to the power of literature to provoke thought, challenge societal norms, and advocate for human dignity. Its legacy is not just its pioneering role in Indian English literature, but its timeless capacity to disturb the complacent, enlighten the uninformed, and inspire continued efforts towards a more equitable and humane world, making it an indispensable classic for its artistic merit and its unwavering commitment to social justice.