The early 16th century in India was a period of profound political flux, marked by the nascent establishment of the Mughal Empire under Babur and its subsequent consolidation by his son, Humayun. While Humayun inherited a vast dominion, it was far from stable, beset by internal dissensions from his own brothers and external threats from resurgent Afghan chiefs and ambitious regional potentates. Among these formidable regional powers, the Sultanate of Gujarat under Bahadur Shah emerged as a particularly potent challenge, engaging Humayun in a significant and ultimately ill-fated conflict that had far-reaching implications for the nascent Mughal state.

Bahadur Shah, ascending the throne of Gujarat in 1526, proved to be an exceptionally ambitious and capable ruler, inheriting a prosperous maritime state known for its flourishing trade and formidable naval power. His reign saw a rapid expansion of Gujarati influence, transforming his sultanate into a dominant force in western India. This expansion inevitably brought him into direct confrontation with the expanding Mughal Empire, creating a dynamic of rivalry rooted in geopolitical ambition, control over strategic trade routes, and the assertion of paramountcy in the subcontinent. The relationship between Humayun and Bahadur Shah was thus largely defined by a struggle for supremacy, punctuated by military campaigns, strategic alliances, and a display of contrasting leadership styles that shaped a critical chapter in early Mughal history.

The Ascendancy of Bahadur Shah and His Ambitions

Bahadur Shah’s rise to prominence was meteoric. He inherited a rich and well-administered kingdom, strategically positioned along the lucrative maritime trade routes of the Arabian Sea. Recognizing the importance of military strength, he meticulously built up his army, paying particular attention to artillery, which was then a cutting-edge military technology. His ambition was not merely to maintain Gujarat’s status but to re-establish the grandeur of the earlier regional empires. He quickly embarked on a series of aggressive campaigns, first annexing the Sultanate of Malwa in 1531, thereby extending his dominion into the heart of Central India. This conquest was significant as Malwa served as a crucial buffer zone between Gujarat and the Mughal territories, and its absorption by Bahadur Shah brought his power closer to Humayun’s direct sphere of influence.

Following his success in Malwa, Bahadur Shah turned his attention to Rajasthan, a region characterized by powerful Rajput principalities. His most notable victory came with the siege and capture of the formidable fortress of Chittor in 1535. This conquest not only enhanced his prestige but also demonstrated his military prowess against one of the most resilient Rajput strongholds. The relentless expansion of Bahadur Shah’s territories, his acquisition of strategic forts, and his burgeoning military might, including a well-equipped navy, made him the most significant independent Muslim ruler in western India and an unavoidable rival to Humayun.

Bahadur Shah as a Haven for Mughal Rebels

Beyond direct territorial expansion, Bahadur Shah adopted a policy that was overtly hostile to Humayun’s authority: he provided asylum and active support to various disaffected elements from the Mughal Empire. This included several Mughal princes, such as Muhammad Zaman Mirza, a cousin of Humayun, who had rebelled against him, and Alam Khan Lodi, a claimant to the Delhi Sultanate from the Afghan Lodi dynasty, who sought to capitalize on any weakness in Mughal rule. Bahadur Shah not only offered them refuge but also provided them with financial assistance, troops, and a base from which to foment rebellion against Humayun. This direct patronage of Mughal adversaries was a profound source of irritation for Humayun, as it threatened the stability of his newly inherited empire and directly challenged his legitimacy as the sovereign ruler. The presence of these disgruntled nobles and princes in Bahadur Shah’s court served as a constant reminder of the internal fissures within the Mughal polity and provided Bahadur Shah with an effective lever against Humayun.

Humayun’s Initial Indecision and the Chittor Episode

Despite the growing threat from Bahadur Shah, Humayun’s initial response was marked by a degree of indecision and preoccupation with other matters. The early years of his reign were plagued by his brothers’ insubordination and the looming threat of Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan chieftain who was steadily consolidating his power in the east. This diffused focus prevented Humayun from immediately addressing the challenge posed by Bahadur Shah.

The legendary episode involving Rani Karnavati of Chittor, mother of the young Udai Singh, seeking Humayun’s help against Bahadur Shah’s siege in 1535, highlights this period of strategic miscalculation. The popular narrative suggests Rani Karnavati sent a Rakhi, a sacred thread, to Humayun, appealing for brotherly protection. While the historical veracity of the Rakhi incident is debated, it is clear that Chittor did appeal to Humayun for assistance. Humayun, however, delayed his intervention, possibly due to a strategic calculation not to engage a fellow Muslim ruler while the Rajput conflict was ongoing, or perhaps due to his own internal challenges and a underestimation of Bahadur Shah’s speed. By the time Humayun eventually moved, Chittor had already fallen to Bahadur Shah. This delay allowed Bahadur Shah to consolidate his gains in Rajasthan, further bolstering his resources and confidence, while potentially alienating a powerful potential ally for Humayun.

The Mughal Campaign Against Bahadur Shah (1535-1536)

The fall of Chittor and Bahadur Shah’s continued patronage of Mughal rebels finally galvanized Humayun into decisive action. In 1535, Humayun launched a massive campaign against Bahadur Shah, aiming to decisively neutralize this formidable rival.

  • The March to Mandu and Battle of Mandsaur (1535): Humayun led his powerful army south, arriving in Malwa. Bahadur Shah, aware of the Mughal army’s strength, decided against a pitched battle in the open field. Instead, he entrenched his forces near Mandsaur, relying heavily on his formidable artillery. He constructed a fortified camp, hoping to wear down the Mughals. However, Humayun, demonstrating strategic acumen, avoided a direct assault. Instead, he encircled Bahadur Shah’s camp, cutting off his supply lines. This siege-like tactic proved highly effective. After two months, facing starvation and dwindling resources, Bahadur Shah was forced to abandon his artillery and vast treasures and escape under the cover of darkness. This was a significant moral and material victory for Humayun, gained without a major direct engagement.

  • Fall of Mandu (1535): Humayun relentlessly pursued Bahadur Shah to Mandu, the capital of Malwa, a hill-fortress renowned for its formidable defenses. Despite its natural strength, Mandu fell quickly to Humayun. Bahadur Shah again managed to escape, this time fleeing to Champaner, the capital of Gujarat.

  • The Capture of Champaner (1535-1536): Champaner was an even more impregnable fortress than Mandu, surrounded by dense jungles and rocky terrain. Bahadur Shah believed it to be unconquerable and had left a strong garrison, along with his immense treasury, within its walls. Humayun laid siege to Champaner, but the siege dragged on. It was during this period that Humayun demonstrated remarkable personal courage and leadership. One night, information was received from a local milkman about a secret path up the almost vertical walls of the fort, used by the villagers to access water and graze cattle. Humayun, along with a few chosen companions, including Bayram Khan, personally scaled the wall using iron spikes, surprising the sleeping guards. This daring act led to the fall of the fort and the capture of its immense treasures, including the fabled wealth of the Gujarat Sultanate. Bahadur Shah, once again, narrowly escaped, fleeing to Diu on the coast, where he sought refuge with the Portuguese.

  • Mughal Occupation of Gujarat and Malwa: With the fall of Champaner, Humayun had effectively conquered the vast and prosperous territories of Gujarat and Malwa. He appointed his younger brother Askari as governor of Gujarat and Hindal as governor of Malwa, establishing Mughal administrative control over these regions. For a brief period, Humayun seemed to have achieved a decisive victory, extending the Mughal Empire to its furthest western limits.

Challenges of Mughal Administration and Bahadur Shah’s Recovery

Despite the initial spectacular success, Humayun’s hold over Gujarat and Malwa proved to be fleeting. Several factors contributed to the rapid unravelling of his conquests:

  • Lack of Local Support: Gujarat had a strong regional identity and a deeply entrenched local administration loyal to the Sultanate. The Mughal rule was perceived as an alien imposition, and there was little local cooperation or support for the new administration.
  • Administrative Neglect and Humayun’s Indulgence: After the conquest, Humayun indulged in prolonged celebrations and a period of leisure in Mandu and Champaner. He spent several months enjoying the conquered wealth, neglecting the urgent task of consolidating his administrative control. This period of inactivity created a power vacuum and allowed disaffection to fester.
  • Internal Dissensions among Mughal Commanders: The relationship between Humayun’s brothers, Askari and Hindal, was always fraught with rivalry and ambition. Askari, appointed governor of Gujarat, soon found himself isolated and facing local resistance. He entertained thoughts of declaring independence and even minted coins in his own name. Hindal, meanwhile, was dissatisfied in Malwa and eventually abandoned his post to return to Agra, further weakening the Mughal presence. This lack of unity and foresight among the Mughal leadership severely undermined their ability to govern the newly conquered territories.
  • Bahadur Shah’s Resilience and Counter-Attack: While Humayun was enjoying his triumph, Bahadur Shah, though stripped of his territories, was far from defeated. From his refuge in Diu, he meticulously gathered his forces, rallied local chiefs who were disgruntled with Mughal rule, and leveraged his relationship with the Portuguese (initially for military support, though this relationship would later turn fatal for him). He launched a swift and effective counter-attack, exploiting the administrative weaknesses and internal disunity of the Mughals. He quickly recaptured significant portions of Gujarat, including Ahmedabad, forcing Askari to retreat.

Humayun’s Retreat and the Aftermath

Faced with Bahadur Shah’s resurgence in Gujarat, Askari’s disloyalty, and the increasingly urgent threat from Sher Shah Suri in the east (who had by now consolidated his power and begun threatening Mughal territories), Humayun was compelled to abandon his western conquests. In 1536, Humayun began his retreat from Gujarat and Malwa, a chaotic and demoralizing withdrawal that negated all the gains he had so painstakingly achieved. Gujarat and Malwa reverted to Bahadur Shah’s control, signifying a major strategic blunder for Humayun.

The Portuguese factor also played a curious role in the ultimate fate of Bahadur Shah. While initially providing him refuge and some assistance, their relationship quickly deteriorated over the question of territorial concessions, particularly the island of Diu. In 1537, Bahadur Shah was killed in a skirmish with the Portuguese off the coast of Diu during negotiations. His death, though not directly caused by Humayun, removed a powerful adversary from the political landscape. However, by this point, Humayun had already lost Gujarat and Malwa.

Consequences and Significance of the Conflict

The conflict between Humayun and Bahadur Shah, though seemingly a military triumph for Humayun initially, ultimately proved to be a strategic disaster for the Mughal emperor.

For Humayun, the campaign was a costly diversion. While he showcased his personal bravery and tactical prowess in battles like Mandsaur and the capture of Champaner, his administrative failings and inability to consolidate his conquests were glaringly exposed. His leisurely stay in Gujarat allowed Bahadur Shah precious time to regroup, and his neglect of the eastern front proved fatal. The time, resources, and military might expended in Gujarat directly contributed to his vulnerability against Sher Shah Suri, who went on to inflict decisive defeats on Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540), forcing him into a prolonged exile. The short-lived conquest of Gujarat and Malwa thus stands as a significant tactical victory but a monumental strategic blunder in Humayun’s reign, highlighting his military capabilities but also his significant administrative and political weaknesses.

For Bahadur Shah, despite suffering initial devastating defeats, he demonstrated remarkable resilience and an ability to swiftly recover his lost territories. He re-established the Sultanate’s authority over Gujarat and Malwa, proving to be a formidable ruler who could stand up to the nascent Mughal power. His ambition and strong regional base made him a significant player in the complex political mosaic of 16th-century India until his untimely death.

The relationship between Humayun and Bahadur Shah was thus a crucial chapter in the early history of the Mughal Empire. It underscored the volatile nature of political power in 16th-century India, where empires were constantly being challenged and redefined by powerful regional polities. Humayun’s campaign against Bahadur Shah, while a testament to his military capability, also served as a stark lesson in the complexities of imperial expansion and the critical importance of effective administration and strategic foresight, lessons that Humayun would only fully grasp during his years of exile. The episode reveals the precariousness of the Mughal hold on India during Humayun’s early reign, where even significant military victories could quickly turn into strategic setbacks if not followed by sound governance and decisive action against other emerging threats.