Mulk Raj Anand’s seminal 1935 novel, Untouchable, stands as a powerful and poignant indictment of the deeply entrenched caste system in India, specifically focusing on the plight of the “untouchables” or “Dalits.” Through the lens of a single day in the life of Bakha, an eighteen-year-old latrine cleaner, Anand meticulously exposes the dehumanizing realities of untouchability, revealing its pervasive influence on every aspect of social, religious, and personal existence. The novel is not merely a social commentary but a profound exploration of human dignity, identity, and the relentless struggle against an oppressive socio-religious hierarchy.

Anand, a prominent figure in Indian English literature and a writer committed to social realism, uses Bakha’s journey to illuminate the multi-faceted nature of discrimination. The narrative is unsparing in its depiction of the indignities, psychological torment, and physical hardships endured by those deemed “unclean” by birth. While the novel primarily functions as a searing critique of the caste system, its thematic tapestry is rich, weaving together strands of sanitation, religious hypocrisy, the search for identity, the allure of modernity, and the quest for viable solutions to an ancient problem. These interwoven themes collectively form a comprehensive portrait of a society grappling with its own moral contradictions and the nascent stirrings of change.

The Scourge of the Caste System and Discrimination

At the core of Untouchable is the brutal reality of the caste system, an ancient social hierarchy that relegates individuals to predetermined positions based on birth. Bakha, as a member of the Chamar sub-caste, is born into the lowest rung, forever condemned to perform the most defiling tasks, primarily cleaning latrines and sweeping streets. This profession, considered inherently impure by the upper castes, becomes the literal and metaphorical marker of his untouchable status. Anand vividly portrays the physical and social segregation imposed upon Bakha and his community: they must live in separate, squalid quarters, use different wells, and are forbidden from entering temples or shops, often having to shout for attention to make their presence known and avoid “polluting” others.

The humiliation Bakha faces is relentless and pervasive. From the simple act of trying to buy sweets, where he must throw coins onto the ground, to being verbally abused and physically assaulted for inadvertently “touching” an upper-caste man, his existence is a continuous gauntlet of scorn and indignity. The very air he breathes seems to be charged with the stigma of his birth. His desire to simply be seen as a human being, to wear clean clothes, or to enjoy a moment of peace is constantly thwarted by the ingrained prejudice of society. This theme underscores the profound psychological damage inflicted by such a system, where self-worth is systematically eroded, and individuals are perpetually reminded of their perceived inferiority. Anand’s portrayal of Bakha’s internal world, oscillating between a desire for acceptance and moments of nascent rebellion, captures the complex emotional landscape of someone trapped within an unjust order. The novel demonstrates how the caste system not only dictates economic and social roles but fundamentally warps human relationships, replacing empathy with rigid adherence to purity rituals.

Sanitation, Filth, and the Paradox of Uncleanliness

Central to Bakha’s identity and the novel’s thematic exploration is the concept of sanitation and filth. Bakha’s daily occupation involves the manual removal of human excrement, a task deemed the most polluting. This physically dirty work is directly linked to his social “uncleanliness.” The irony, which Anand meticulously highlights, is that those who perform the vital function of maintaining public hygiene are themselves considered the dirtiest and most impure members of society. Their very touch, or even shadow, is believed to contaminate.

Anand uses the imagery of filth not just literally but also metaphorically. The physical squalor of the untouchables’ living conditions reflects the moral squalor of a society that perpetuates such injustice. The piles of refuse, the overflowing latrines, and the general unhygienic environment of the untouchable quarters serve as a grim testament to their marginalization. Conversely, the seemingly clean and pristine homes of the upper castes are maintained through the very labor they despise. This paradox exposes the hypocrisy at the heart of the caste system: it relies on the “unclean” to maintain the “purity” of the “clean.” Bakha’s personal yearning for cleanliness, his pride in his uniform, and his admiration for European sanitation highlight his internal struggle against the stigma. He understands that while he performs dirty work, his inherent self is not dirty. This theme forces the reader to confront the arbitrary nature of the concepts of purity and pollution, which are shown to be social constructs rather than inherent qualities.

Religion, Hypocrisy, and Spiritual Desecration

Religion, particularly Hinduism, is presented as a powerful force that paradoxically justifies and perpetuates the oppression of the untouchables. The novel exposes the deep hypocrisy embedded within religious practices and beliefs. The dharmashastras and other religious texts are cited by upper castes to legitimize the concept of untouchability, claiming it is divinely ordained. This allows priests and other religious figures to wield immense power and enforce discriminatory practices under the guise of piety.

The incident at the temple provides a stark illustration of this theme. Bakha, yearning for a spiritual connection, attempts to enter a temple, only to be violently repelled and accused of defiling the sacred space. The priest, Kalinath, who later attempts to molest Bakha’s sister Sohini, embodies the moral decay within the religious establishment. His actions reveal a profound disconnect between spiritual teachings of compassion and the lived reality of those who claim to be its custodians. The temple, a supposed sanctuary, becomes a site of exclusion and further humiliation.

Anand contrasts this rigid, discriminatory Hinduism with other religious influences. The brief encounter with a Christian missionary offers Bakha a glimpse of a religion that preaches equality and love, prompting him to consider conversion. Similarly, the Sikh gurdwara offers a temporary respite, where Bakha experiences a sense of welcome and equality, listening to the kirtan and sharing food with others without discrimination. These alternative religious experiences highlight the potential for spiritual solace and egalitarianism, standing in stark contrast to the oppressive brand of Hinduism depicted. The novel suggests that while religion can be a source of solace and moral guidance, it can also be twisted to serve as a tool of social control and oppression, revealing the profound spiritual desecration that occurs when human beings are denied their inherent dignity in the name of faith.

The Search for Dignity and Identity

Bakha’s journey throughout the novel is fundamentally a quest for dignity and a coherent identity in a world that constantly denies him both. Born into a status that strips him of his humanity, Bakha struggles internally with the societal labels imposed upon him. He yearns to be seen, to be respected, to be clean, and to experience the world like any other human being. His fascination with British culture—his desire to wear a uniform, to smoke English cigarettes, and to use clean utensils—is not merely an affectation but a desperate attempt to appropriate symbols of a world where he imagines he might find a different kind of respect, a world unburdened by the stigma of his birth.

However, every attempt to assert his individuality or escape his prescribed role is met with resistance. His clean clothes do not prevent him from being verbally abused; his polite demeanor does not spare him from contempt. The novel meticulously documents the myriad ways society grinds down Bakha’s spirit. From the upper-caste men who treat him as sub-human to the children who mock him, his identity is continually attacked. Yet, Bakha is not entirely passive. He experiences moments of quiet defiance, flashes of anger, and a deep, simmering frustration. His internal monologues reveal a young man grappling with existential questions: why is he an untouchable? Why must he endure such suffering? This search for dignity is both external, through his interactions with others, and internal, as he struggles to maintain a sense of self-worth against overwhelming odds. Anand’s portrayal emphasizes that true dignity is an intrinsic human right, not something bestowed or revoked by social decree.

Modernity, Solutions, and the Glimmer of Hope

While Untouchable paints a bleak picture of oppression, it concludes with a discussion of potential solutions, offering a glimmer of hope, albeit a complex and uncertain one. Bakha overhears a debate between three distinct perspectives: Mahatma Gandhi’s reformist approach, the lawyer Bashir’s advocacy for technological advancement (the flush system), and the poet Iqbal Singh’s call for social revolution and machinery. These three viewpoints represent different paths to liberation from the yoke of untouchability.

Mahatma Gandhi’s Approach: Gandhi, a prominent figure in India’s independence movement, advocated for moral reform and a change of heart among the upper castes. He renamed untouchables “Harijans” (Children of God) and championed their cause through non-violent means, promoting self-purification and a dismantling of the mental barriers that perpetuate discrimination. His emphasis was on an inner transformation of society, urging people to shed their prejudices through love and understanding. For Bakha, Gandhi’s words offer emotional solace and a sense of belonging, validating his humanity. However, the novel also implicitly questions the practicality and speed of such a spiritual awakening in deeply ingrained social structures.

The Flush System (Technological Solution): The lawyer Bashir, representing a more pragmatic and modern perspective, argues that the most effective solution lies in adopting the flush toilet system. This technological advancement would eliminate the need for manual scavenging, thus removing the very profession that defines untouchables’ impurity. By changing the physical reality of waste disposal, the social stigma associated with it could theoretically be eradicated. This solution appeals to Bakha’s desire for cleanliness and his aversion to his current occupation, offering a concrete, tangible way out of his plight. It posits that social problems can be addressed through material and technological progress, challenging traditional ways of life.

The Poet’s Vision (Revolution and Machinery): Iqbal Singh, the poet, offers a more radical vision. He argues that true liberation will come through a social revolution driven by the adoption of modern machinery. He believes that only by replacing manual labor with machines will the untouchables be truly freed from their degrading work and empowered to become equal members of society. His perspective is a blend of Marxist ideology and a call for a complete societal overhaul, moving beyond mere reform to fundamental structural change. This vision, while perhaps intimidating in its scope, resonates with Bakha’s yearning for a world where he is not defined by his menial labor.

Bakha’s reaction to these solutions is significant. He is not fully convinced by any single one but finds elements in each that appeal to him. Gandhi’s words offer spiritual comfort, the flush system promises practical relief from his daily torment, and the poet’s vision speaks to a grander transformation. The novel ends ambiguously, with Bakha leaving the discussion “pondering, and pondering,” his future uncertain. This ambiguity reflects the complexity of the problem and the lack of easy answers. Anand doesn’t offer a definitive solution but rather presents a range of possibilities, leaving the reader to reflect on the long, arduous journey towards true social justice.

Colonialism and its Indirect Influence

While not a primary theme, the presence of British colonialism subtly influences the narrative. The British, though rulers, are portrayed as holding a detached, almost naive, view of Indian society’s deeper social ills. Their presence is manifested in aspects like Bakha’s fascination with Western clothes and English cigarettes, symbols of a perceived modern and less caste-ridden world. The introduction of the flush system itself is a product of Western technology, presented as a potential solution originating from outside the traditional Indian societal framework.

This theme highlights a contrast between traditional Indian society and Western ideals, particularly concerning hygiene and social mobility. Bakha’s admiration for the English is rooted in his observation that they do not adhere to the same rigid caste distinctions, at least not in the same overt, ritualistic way. This fleeting hope that a different social order might exist outside his immediate reality offers him a momentary escape, even if it is a fantasy. However, the novel also implicitly critiques the colonial administration for its failure to fundamentally address, or even its complicity in maintaining, the oppressive caste system, despite its claims of civilizing influence. The British presence serves more as a backdrop against which the indigenous social hierarchies play out, and their solutions are seen through the lens of technological rather than moral intervention.

Conclusion

Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable remains a potent and enduring work, primarily because of its unflinching exploration of the human cost of the caste system. Through Bakha’s harrowing day, the novel meticulously peels back the layers of social injustice, revealing the deep-seated prejudice, religious hypocrisy, and the constant psychological torment inflicted upon those deemed “unclean.” The pervasive nature of discrimination, impacting every facet of Bakha’s existence from his profession to his personal interactions, is rendered with profound empathy and realism.

The novel’s genius lies not only in its vivid portrayal of suffering but also in its nuanced examination of potential pathways to liberation. By presenting a spectrum of solutions—moral reform championed by Gandhi, technological advancement through the flush system, and a radical social revolution envisioned by the poet—Anand avoids simplistic answers. Instead, he invites the reader to consider the multifaceted nature of social change, acknowledging that true transformation is a complex, long-term process requiring shifts in both attitudes and infrastructure. Bakha’s ambiguous but hopeful ending encapsulates the ongoing struggle for dignity and equality, suggesting that while the path is arduous, the pursuit of justice is an eternal human endeavor. The novel stands as a timeless reminder of the importance of recognizing the inherent humanity in every individual, regardless of their birth or occupation.