Examine the main features of Shershahs administrative system.

The reign of Shershah Suri, though remarkably brief from 1540 to 1545 CE, stands as a pivotal epoch in the administrative history of India. Born as Farid Khan, his ascension to power involved displacing the nascent Mughal rule of Humayun, a feat that demonstrated not only his military acumen but also his profound understanding of statecraft. Shershah was not merely a conqueror; he was a meticulous and visionary administrator whose reforms laid the groundwork for the future stability and prosperity of the Indian subcontinent, most notably influencing the subsequent and more enduring Mughal Empire under Akbar. His five-year rule was marked by a relentless pursuit of efficiency, justice, and public welfare, transforming a fragmented political landscape into a relatively cohesive and well-governed state.

Shershah’s administrative genius lay in his ability to diagnose the maladies afflicting the existing systems and to implement practical, often revolutionary, solutions. He recognized that a strong and stable empire could only be built upon the foundations of a just land revenue system, an impartial judiciary, a disciplined military, a robust currency, and a facilitative infrastructure. His reforms were not abstract theoretical constructs but were rooted in his extensive practical experience, first as a Jagirdar and then as a ruler. This grounded approach ensured that his policies were not only effective but also sustainable, earning him a reputation as one of India‘s most astute and benevolent rulers. The subsequent examination will delve into the multifaceted features of Shershah’s administrative system, highlighting its structure, innovations, and lasting legacy.

The Visionary Administrator: Shershah Suri

Shershah's rise from humble beginnings to become the Emperor of Hindustan provided him with an unparalleled understanding of the challenges faced by both the rulers and the ruled. Having served as an administrator of his father's Jagir at Sasaram, he gained firsthand experience in revenue collection, law and order, and local governance. This practical knowledge profoundly shaped his administrative philosophy, which prioritized central control, direct accountability, and welfare of the peasantry. He believed that the strength of the empire resided in the prosperity and contentment of its subjects, particularly the farmers who formed the backbone of the economy. His reforms, therefore, were not random acts of governance but part of a coherent and comprehensive strategy to build a powerful and just state.

Central Administration

At the apex of Shershah's administrative structure was the Sultan himself, wielding supreme authority in all matters – executive, legislative, and judicial. However, Shershah was not an autocratic ruler in the conventional sense; he actively sought advice and maintained a meticulous oversight over all departments. He held regular durbars, listened to petitions, and ensured that justice was accessible. Despite his personal involvement, a well-defined departmental structure assisted him in governance. The four primary departments of the central government were:

Diwan-i-Wizarat: Headed by the Wazir or Diwan, this department was responsible for finance, revenue, and general administration. It managed the state’s income and expenditure, ensuring fiscal discipline and the smooth functioning of the revenue collection machinery.
Diwan-i-Ariz: Under the Ariz-i-Mumalik, this department managed the military. Its responsibilities included recruitment, organization, payment, and discipline of the army, as well as the maintenance of military equipment and supplies. Shershah paid personal attention to this department, understanding the critical role of a strong army in maintaining internal order and defending the empire.
Diwan-i-Risalat: This department, led by the Dabir or Qazi-i-Risalat, dealt with foreign affairs and diplomatic correspondence. It handled embassies, maintained relations with other states, and was also responsible for internal communication and royal orders. Some historians suggest it also oversaw charitable endowments.
Diwan-i-Insha: Headed by the Dabir-i-Khas, this department was responsible for royal correspondence, drafting farmans (royal decrees), and maintaining records of the state. It served as the central secretariat, ensuring clarity and consistency in communication throughout the empire.

In addition to these, there were other important officials like the Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzzat) for justice and the Chief Sadr (Sadr-us-Sudur) for religious affairs and endowments. Shershah ensured that all officials, regardless of their rank, were held accountable and that corruption was severely punished. He conducted regular inspections and transferred officials frequently to prevent them from developing local vested interests.

Provincial and Local Administration

Shershah's administrative units were primarily based on the [Sarkar](/posts/state-salient-features-sarkaria/) (district) and Pargana (sub-district), with the village forming the fundamental unit. Unlike the later Mughal system, there wasn't a clearly defined provincial division with independent governors. Instead, the central administration directly supervised the [Sarkar](/posts/state-salient-features-sarkaria/)s, ensuring tighter control.

Sarkar (District): Each Sarkar was managed by two principal officers:
- Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran: The chief Shiqdar, responsible for maintaining law and order, supervising the Pargana Shiqdars, and suppressing rebellions. He was essentially the executive and military head of the Sarkar.
- Munsif-i-Munsifan: The chief Munsif, primarily responsible for land revenue administration, surveying, assessment, and collection. He also acted as a judge in civil disputes within the Sarkar. These two officials worked in tandem, ensuring both administrative efficiency and judicial impartiality.
Pargana (Sub-district): Below the Sarkar, each Pargana was administered by:
- Shiqdar: Responsible for law and order, military functions, and acting as a local police chief.
- Amin (or Munsif): Primarily responsible for land revenue assessment and collection, working under the Munsif-i-Munsifan.
- Fotedar (or Khazandar): The treasurer, responsible for keeping accounts and managing funds.
- Karkuns (Clerks): Assisted the Amin and Fotedar in maintaining records and accounts, typically one Hindi writer and one Persian writer.
Village: The village was the smallest unit of Local Administration, largely self-governing. The traditional village functionaries continued their roles, but with increased accountability to the state.
- Muqaddam: The village headman, responsible for collecting revenue from the villagers and maintaining law and order within the village. He was held directly accountable for any crimes committed in the village.
- Patwari: The village accountant, who maintained land records and revenue accounts.
- Chaukidar: The village watchman, assisting the Muqaddam in maintaining order.

This hierarchical structure, with clear delineation of duties and direct accountability at each level, ensured that the state’s writ ran effectively down to the grassroots, preventing the concentration of power and promoting efficient governance.

The Land Revenue System: A Cornerstone of Reform

Shershah's most significant and enduring administrative reform was his overhaul of the [land revenue system](/posts/write-note-on-working-of-mughal-land/), often referred to as the "Ryotwari System" due to its direct relationship with the cultivators. He aimed to maximize state revenue while protecting the peasants from exploitation by intermediaries.

Systematic Measurement and Classification: Shershah introduced a uniform system of land measurement using the “Sikandari Gaz” (32 finger length) and the “bigha” as the standard unit. All arable land was surveyed and measured. Lands were classified into three categories: good, middling, and bad, based on their fertility and past produce. The average produce of each category was calculated.
State’s Share: The state’s share was fixed at one-third of the average produce for all types of land. This share could be paid in cash or kind, though cash payment was preferred. This uniform rate, combined with systematic measurement, brought much-needed transparency and predictability to the revenue demand.
Patta and Qabuliyat: To formalize the relationship between the state and the cultivator, Shershah introduced the system of “Patta” (deed of entitlement) and “Qabuliyat” (deed of agreement). The Patta specified the area of land, the type of crop, and the state’s fixed revenue demand for a particular year. The Qabuliyat was a written agreement signed by the cultivator, accepting the terms and promising to pay the specified revenue. This system eliminated ambiguity and protected the rights of both the state and the peasants.
Direct Collection: Shershah preferred to collect revenue directly from the cultivators (ryots) whenever possible, bypassing the powerful and often exploitative Zamindars. While some Zamindars retained their positions, their power to oppress the peasants was significantly curtailed.
Protection for Peasants: Shershah was known for his benevolence towards peasants. He instituted measures to protect them during natural calamities. In case of crop damage due to war or natural disaster, the state compensated the farmers or remitted the revenue. He also provided interest-free loans (taqavi) to peasants for agricultural development, demonstrating a progressive approach to agrarian welfare.
Meticulous Records: Detailed records of land holdings, produce, and revenue collection were maintained by the Patwaris and Karkuns. This emphasis on record-keeping was crucial for efficient administration and preventing corruption.

This revenue system was a remarkable achievement, bringing stability, increasing state revenue, and providing a sense of security to the peasantry. Its principles of direct assessment and protection of cultivators were so sound that Akbar’s revenue minister, Raja Todar Mal, largely adopted and refined Shershah’s system.

Justice System: Impartiality and Efficiency

Shershah firmly believed in dispensing impartial and swift justice, often asserting that "justice was the most excellent of religious rites." He personally heard petitions and administered justice without discrimination.

Hierarchy of Courts: At the apex was the Sultan’s court, which heard appeals and original cases of significant importance. Below him, the Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzzat) headed the judicial system. At the Sarkar level, the Munsif-i-Munsifan presided over civil cases, and the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran handled criminal cases. At the Pargana level, the Amin (Munsif) was responsible for civil cases, and the Shiqdar for criminal cases.
Role of Officials: Qazis, who were learned in Islamic law, were appointed at various levels to administer justice. Muftis assisted them by expounding on the law. Amins and Munsifs handled civil and revenue disputes, while Shiqdars and Faujdars dealt with criminal matters and law enforcement.
Local Justice: Village panchayats continued to handle petty civil and criminal disputes at the local level. The Muqaddams also played a role in settling minor issues.
Strict Punishments: Shershah was known for his strict enforcement of laws. Punishments were severe and applied equally to all, irrespective of social status or origin. This harsh but equitable system created a strong deterrent effect, reducing crime significantly and contributing to the renowned peace and order during his reign. His maxim, “The sword of justice should fall without distinction,” underscored his commitment to an impartial judiciary.

Police System: Order and Accountability

Shershah's police system was unique, relying heavily on the principle of local responsibility rather than a centralized force. There was no distinct police department in the modern sense; law and order were integrated into the general administration and military functions.

Local Accountability: The most striking feature was the accountability of village headmen (Muqaddams) and district officials for crimes within their jurisdiction. If a theft or murder occurred and the culprit could not be apprehended, the Muqaddam was held responsible and often compelled to produce the culprit or compensate the victim. This system incentivized local officials to be vigilant and maintain order.
Faujdars: At the Sarkar level, Faujdars, who were essentially military officers, were responsible for maintaining peace, pursuing criminals, and assisting the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran in law enforcement.
Chaukidars: Village watchmen (Chaukidars) assisted the Muqaddams in their duties, patrolling and reporting suspicious activities.
Espionage System: A highly effective intelligence network, comprising spies and news-reporters, supplemented the police functions. This system kept the Sultan informed of local conditions, official conduct, and potential threats, acting as an early warning mechanism for crime and rebellion.
Results: The strict enforcement of justice, coupled with the system of local accountability, led to a significant reduction in crime, particularly highway robbery, making trade routes safe and contributing to general public security. Contemporary accounts praise the safety of roads and villages during Shershah’s rule.

Military Administration: Discipline and Strength

Shershah understood that a strong and disciplined army was essential for maintaining order and protecting the empire. He implemented several reforms to make his military efficient and loyal.

Direct Recruitment and Payment: Unlike the prevalent Jagirdari system where feudal lords maintained troops, Shershah abolished the Jagir system for his military and began recruiting soldiers directly. They were paid salaries in cash from the central treasury, ensuring their loyalty to the Sultan rather than to local chiefs.
Branding (Dagh) and Descriptive Rolls (Chehra): To prevent corruption and ensure the quality of his army, Shershah revived the Alauddin Khalji’s practice of “Dagh” (branding of horses) and introduced “Chehra” (descriptive rolls of soldiers). Dagh ensured that horses provided by officers were of good quality and that no substitution occurred after inspection. Chehra involved maintaining detailed physical descriptions of each soldier, preventing officers from presenting proxies or under-strength contingents.
Regular Inspections and Drills: The army was regularly inspected, and soldiers were put through drills to maintain their physical fitness and combat readiness.
Strong Standing Army: Shershah maintained a large, centralized standing army, well-equipped and highly disciplined. This allowed him to respond quickly to threats and maintain tight control over his vast territories.
Cantonments: He established several cantonments and fortified garrisons at strategic locations across the empire to maintain peace and respond to emergencies.

Currency Reforms: Standardisation and Stability

Shershah's currency reforms were revolutionary and had a lasting impact on [India](/posts/describe-main-sources-of-indian/)'s monetary system. He replaced the existing chaotic mix of debased coins with a standardized tri-metallic currency.

Introduction of Rupia: His most significant contribution was the introduction of a new silver coin called the “Rupia.” This coin weighed 178 grains and became the standard currency, remaining in circulation for centuries and forming the basis for the modern Indian rupee.
Copper and Gold Coins: He also issued copper coins called “Paisa” (weighing 320 grains) and gold coins called “Mohur). He ensured a fixed ratio between the gold, silver, and copper coins.
Purity and Weight: Shershah ensured the purity and accurate weight of all his coins, which instilled confidence in the currency and greatly facilitated trade and commerce. This standardization brought much-needed stability to the economy.
Minting: Coins were minted in various state mints, and their value was consistent throughout the empire.

Trade and Commerce: Facilitation and Growth

Shershah was a keen promoter of trade and commerce, recognizing its importance for state prosperity.

Abolition of Internal Customs: He abolished numerous internal customs duties (octroi) that previously hampered trade. He mandated that customs duties be collected only at two points: at the point of entry into the empire and at the point of sale. This significantly reduced transit costs and encouraged free movement of goods.
Roads and Sarais: The construction of an extensive network of roads and the establishment of numerous Sarais facilitated trade. These public works projects made transportation easier, faster, and safer, reducing the risk for merchants.
Security on Trade Routes: The strict police system and harsh punishment for highway robbers ensured unprecedented safety on trade routes, boosting merchant confidence and economic activity.

Public Works and Infrastructure: Vision for Development

Shershah's vision extended beyond military and administrative reforms to include significant public works, which not only served administrative and military purposes but also benefited the general populace.

Grand Trunk Road (Sadak-i-Azam): His most famous contribution was the renovation and extension of the ancient Grand Trunk Road, stretching from Sonargaon (in modern Bangladesh) to Peshawar (in modern Pakistan). He also built other important roads, connecting Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor, and Lahore to Multan.
Sarais (Rest Houses): Along these major roads, Shershah constructed approximately 1,700 Sarais (rest houses). Each Sarai provided lodging for travelers, separate accommodations for Hindus and Muslims, a well, and food. They were managed by a Shiqdar and a few servants. These Sarais also served as post offices (Dak Chauki) and market centres, contributing to trade and communication.
Planting of Trees and Wells: He ordered the planting of trees along the roads to provide shade and the digging of wells for water supply, making travel more comfortable.
Architectural Patronage: Shershah also patronized architecture, building mosques, forts, and his magnificent tomb at Sasaram, which is a blend of Indo-Islamic styles and stands as a testament to his artistic sensibilities.

Espionage System: Eyes and Ears of the Sultan

Shershah maintained a highly organized and effective espionage system, which was crucial for central control and maintaining law and order.

Waqia-Navis and Spies: A vast network of spies (Barids) and news-writers (Waqia-Navis) was deployed across the empire. They kept the Sultan informed about every aspect of public life, official conduct, market prices, and potential conspiracies.
Direct Reporting: These intelligence agents reported directly to the Sultan, bypassing local officials, which prevented corruption and ensured accurate information flow. This system allowed Shershah to quickly identify and address issues, whether they were administrative lapses, acts of rebellion, or instances of injustice.

Benevolent Measures and Patronage

Beyond the structural reforms, Shershah also implemented several benevolent measures, reflecting his concern for the welfare of his subjects.

Charity: He established a department for charity (Imarat-i-Am), which distributed free food to the poor and needy. He also allocated funds for stipends to scholars, teachers, and students.
Patronage of Arts and Learning: Although his reign was short, he encouraged learning and supported scholars. His architectural endeavors, particularly his tomb at Sasaram, demonstrate a refined aesthetic sense and patronage of building arts.

Shershah Suri’s administrative system, despite its relatively brief implementation, left an indelible mark on Indian history. His vision transformed a fragmented dominion into a centralized, efficient, and prosperous state. He demonstrated remarkable foresight in areas such as land revenue, currency, and infrastructure, which were far ahead of their time. The direct relationship with the peasantry, the standardization of currency, and the emphasis on public welfare were truly groundbreaking.

The lasting legacy of Shershah’s administrative genius is perhaps best exemplified by the fact that many of his reforms were adopted and further refined by Emperor Akbar, who built upon Shershah’s foundations to create the enduring Mughal Empire. The land revenue system, the currency reforms (especially the Rupia), and the network of roads and Sarais became integral parts of the Mughal administrative apparatus. Shershah’s reign served as a crucial interregnum that not only challenged the nascent Mughal power but also provided a blueprint for effective governance, proving that even a short period of rule, when guided by clear vision and meticulous execution, can profoundly shape the destiny of a nation. His reforms stand as a testament to his statesmanship and his commitment to the welfare of his subjects, earning him a place among the most celebrated administrators in Indian history.