Sher Shah Suri, whose original name was Farid Khan, rose from humble beginnings to establish the Sur Empire in India, ruling for a relatively brief but incredibly impactful period from 1540 to 1545 CE. Despite the brevity of his reign, his administrative genius left an indelible mark on the Indian subcontinent, laying down a robust framework that later Mughal emperors, particularly Akbar, would adopt, refine, and build upon. His rise to power was marked by military prowess, culminating in his decisive victory over the Mughal emperor Humayun at the Battle of Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kannauj (1540), forcing Humayun into exile.

Sher Shah inherited a kingdom fractured by political instability, economic disarray, and a lack of centralized administrative control. His primary objective was to consolidate his vast empire, bring order and prosperity to his subjects, and establish an efficient and just governance system. He understood that a strong military needed to be supported by a sound financial system, equitable justice, and robust infrastructure. His reforms were not piecemeal but a holistic and interconnected approach aimed at establishing a well-ordered state where the welfare of the common people was paramount. His vision extended beyond mere conquest; he sought to build a lasting legacy of good governance, characterized by efficiency, fairness, and accountability.

Administrative Reforms of Sher Shah Suri

Sher Shah’s administrative reforms were systematic, comprehensive, and touched upon almost every aspect of governance, from central administration to local self-governance, land revenue, justice, military, and infrastructure development. His policies were characterized by a pragmatic approach, aiming to eliminate corruption, ensure economic stability, and promote the welfare of his subjects.

Central Administration

Sher Shah Suri maintained a highly centralized administrative structure, with the Sultan himself as the pivot of all governmental activities. He was an absolute monarch, yet he believed in the welfare of his subjects and personally supervised all departments, demonstrating an exceptional work ethic and attention to detail.

  1. The Sultan: Sher Shah was the supreme authority in legislative, executive, and judicial matters. He personally heard petitions, dispensed justice, and formulated policies. He was accessible to the common people, ensuring that their grievances were heard.
  2. Council of Ministers: While there wasn’t a formally structured council in the modern sense, Sher Shah appointed several key ministers to head important departments, assisting him in the day-to-day administration. These included:
    • Diwan-i Wizarat (Finance and Revenue Department): Headed by the Wazir (Chief Minister), this department was responsible for managing the state’s finances, collecting revenue, overseeing expenditures, and maintaining treasury records. The Wazir was a powerful figure, second only to the Sultan, and also had general administrative responsibilities.
    • Diwan-i Arz (Army Department): Led by the Ariz-i Mamalik, this department was crucial for maintaining military efficiency. It was responsible for the recruitment, organization, discipline, and payment of soldiers. The Ariz-i Mamalik also oversaw the branding of horses (dagh) and the maintenance of descriptive rolls of soldiers (chehra) to prevent corruption and ensure genuine forces were maintained.
    • Diwan-i Risalat (Foreign Affairs/Correspondence Department): This department was responsible for diplomatic relations with other states, receiving ambassadors, and handling official correspondence. It was generally headed by the Dabir or a principal secretary.
    • Diwan-i Insha (Royal Correspondence and Records): This department dealt with royal proclamations, imperial orders (farmans), and maintaining state records. It was responsible for drafting and dispatching royal letters and maintaining archives.
    • Diwan-i Qaza (Justice Department): Headed by the Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzat), this department oversaw the administration of justice throughout the empire. It was responsible for ensuring fair trials and implementing legal codes.
    • Diwan-i Barid (Intelligence and Postal Department): This department was crucial for maintaining internal security and effective communication. It was headed by the Darogha-i Barid and included a network of intelligence agents and news-runners (waqia navis), who kept the Sultan informed about provincial affairs and public opinion.
    • Diwan-i Saman (Royal Household Department): This department managed the royal household, including the royal workshops (karkhanas), stores, and provision of supplies for the emperor and his family.

Provincial and Local Administration

Sher Shah’s administrative units were meticulously organized to ensure effective governance and control over vast territories. He abolished the old system of large, autonomous provinces governed by powerful nobles, which often led to rebellions. Instead, he divided his empire into smaller, manageable units.

  1. Sarkars (Districts): The empire was divided into 47 Sarkars, each functioning as a district. Each Sarkar was managed by two principal officers:
    • Shiqdar-i Shiqdaran (Chief Shiqdar): This officer was primarily responsible for maintaining law and order within the district, enforcing imperial decrees, and commanding the military contingents stationed in the Sarkar. He also had supervisory powers over the Shiqdars of the Parganas.
    • Munsif-i Munsifan (Chief Munsif or Amin): This officer was responsible for revenue assessment and collection, overseeing the work of the Amins in the Parganas, and administering civil justice.
  2. Parganas (Sub-districts): Each Sarkar was further subdivided into several Parganas. A Pargana typically consisted of a group of villages. Each Pargana had the following officials:
    • Shiqdar: Responsible for law and order, general administration, and military affairs at the Pargana level.
    • Amin/Munsif: Primarily responsible for land revenue assessment and collection, and civil justice.
    • Fotedar (Treasurer): Maintained the treasury of the Pargana and was responsible for safe custody of the collected revenue.
    • Karkuns (Clerks): Two clerks, one writing in Hindi and the other in Persian, maintained records of land revenue, accounts, and other administrative matters.
  3. Gram (Villages): The village remained the fundamental unit of administration. Sher Shah largely maintained the traditional village self-governance system.
    • Panchayat: Village elders (Panchayat) were responsible for local justice, resolving minor disputes, and maintaining village peace.
    • Muqaddam: The village headman, responsible for collecting revenue and maintaining law and order within the village. Sher Shah introduced a significant reform by making the Muqaddam and the entire village community collectively responsible for any crime committed within their jurisdiction. If a crime occurred and the culprit was not apprehended, the Muqaddam was held accountable, often facing severe punishment, thereby incentivizing local communities to actively participate in law enforcement.
    • Patwari: The village accountant, responsible for maintaining land records and revenue accounts.
    • Chowkidar: The village watchman, assisting the Muqaddam in maintaining order.

Land Revenue Administration

Sher Shah’s land revenue system was his most significant and farsighted reform, laying the foundation for Akbar’s more elaborate system. He aimed to ensure a direct relationship between the state and the cultivators (ryots), eliminate intermediaries, and prevent exploitation.

  1. Direct Settlement (Ryotwari System): Sher Shah abolished the system of granting jagirs (land assignments) that often led to exploitation of peasants by Jagirdars. Instead, he tried to establish a direct relationship with the cultivators.
  2. Land Survey and Measurement (Jarib): He introduced a systematic and uniform measurement of land. All cultivable land was measured using a standardized unit called the “Sikandari Yard” (Gaz-i Sikandari) of 32 digits, equivalent to about 39 inches. The land was categorized into three types based on fertility: good, middling, and bad.
  3. Assessment (Rai): The average produce of each category of land was calculated, and one-third of this average produce was fixed as the state’s share. This method was known as ‘Rai’ or schedule of crop rates. The state’s share could be paid in cash or kind, though cash payment was encouraged due to its administrative convenience and financial benefits for the state.
  4. Patta (Title Deed) and Qabuliyat (Deed of Agreement): To ensure transparency and protect the rights of the peasants, Sher Shah introduced the system of Patta and Qabuliyat.
    • A Patta was a title deed issued by the state to each cultivator, specifying the area of land cultivated, the type of crop grown, and the amount of revenue payable.
    • A Qabuliyat was a deed of agreement or acceptance signed by the cultivator, agreeing to the terms and conditions mentioned in the Patta. This system provided security of tenure to the peasants and clear documentation of their obligations, reducing arbitrary demands by revenue officials.
  5. Loans (Taccavi): Provisions were made for granting loans (taccavi) to peasants during times of distress, such as crop failure or natural calamities, to help them recover and continue cultivation.
  6. Famine Relief: The state took responsibility for providing relief to peasants during famines and natural disasters, including remission of taxes and distribution of grains.
  7. Benefits: This system significantly increased state revenue, ensured fairness in assessment, prevented peasant exploitation by local officials, and encouraged agricultural prosperity.

Justice System

Sher Shah was renowned for his unwavering commitment to justice, often proclaiming, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites and it is approved alike by the King of the infidels and the King of the faithful.” He ensured that justice was administered impartially, without discrimination based on status or wealth.

  1. Sultan as the Highest Court: The Sultan himself served as the supreme court of appeal (Dar-ul-Adalat), personally hearing cases, especially those involving high-ranking officials or complex matters.
  2. Chief Qazi (Qazi-ul-Quzat): At the central level, the Chief Qazi was the head of the judicial department, overseeing the entire judicial machinery.
  3. District and Pargana Level:
    • Munsif-i Munsifan and Amins were responsible for civil cases at the district and Pargana levels, respectively.
    • Shiqdar-i Shiqdaran and Shiqdars handled criminal cases at the district and Pargana levels.
  4. Village Panchayats: At the village level, traditional Panchayats continued to dispense local justice, particularly for minor civil and criminal disputes.
  5. Strict Enforcement: Sher Shah enforced law and order with an iron hand. Punishments were severe and applied equally to all. His emphasis on making local officials and communities responsible for crimes within their areas significantly reduced banditry and theft, making roads safe for travelers and merchants.

Military Reforms

Sher Shah recognized the importance of a strong and disciplined army for maintaining control and expanding his empire. His reforms addressed issues of loyalty, efficiency, and corruption within the military.

  1. Centralized Army: He maintained a large, well-organized standing army directly under the Sultan’s command, reducing reliance on feudal levies from nobles.
  2. Branding of Horses (Dagh): Re-introducing Alauddin Khalji’s system, Sher Shah implemented the branding of horses to prevent the common practice of presenting inferior horses or the same horse multiple times during military musters. Each horse was branded with the royal mark.
  3. Descriptive Rolls of Soldiers (Chehra): To prevent proxy soldiers and ensure that the actual soldiers were present, detailed descriptive rolls (chehra) of individual soldiers were maintained, including their physical characteristics, parentage, and address.
  4. Direct Payment to Soldiers: Soldiers were paid directly by the central treasury, reducing the chances of exploitation by their commanders and ensuring their loyalty to the Sultan rather than to local chiefs.
  5. Fortifications: He repaired old forts and constructed new strategic forts, most notably the formidable Rohtas Fort in Punjab, to secure the empire’s borders and suppress rebellious elements.
  6. Strict Discipline: Sher Shah enforced strict discipline within the army, ensuring regular training and readiness for battle.

Trade and Commerce Reforms

Sher Shah was a visionary who understood that economic prosperity was vital for the strength of the state. He implemented significant reforms to facilitate Trade and Commerce, improve communication, and standardize currency.

  1. Road Network: His most famous contribution was the construction and repair of an extensive network of roads. The most significant was the Grand Trunk Road (then called Sadak-i-Azam), stretching over 1500 miles from Sonargaon (Bangladesh) in the east to Peshawar (Pakistan) in the west. Other major roads included Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor, and Lahore to Multan. These roads were vital for trade, military movement, and administrative control.
  2. Sarais (Inns/Rest Houses): Along these roads, Sher Shah built around 1700 sarais (rest houses) at regular intervals (every 2 koss or approximately 4 miles). These sarais provided lodging, food, water, and security for travelers, merchants, and officials. They also functioned as post offices (dak chowkis) and market places, further boosting trade and communication.
  3. Customs Duties: He simplified and unified customs duties across the empire. Only two duties were levied: one at the point of entry (on the frontier or point of origin) and another at the point of sale. This eliminated numerous local tolls and transit duties that previously hampered trade, making movement of goods easier and cheaper.
  4. Currency Reforms: Sher Shah introduced a standardized and reformed currency system, which significantly stabilized the economy.
    • He issued new silver coins called “Rupiya” (weighing 178 grains) which became a standard coin for centuries.
    • He also issued copper coins called “Paisa” (weighing 330 grains) and gold coins (ashrafi).
    • The coins were of high metallic purity and uniform weight, which greatly facilitated trade, boosted confidence in the currency, and streamlined financial transactions.
  5. Weights and Measures: He attempted to standardize weights and measures across the empire, though this was a more challenging and less uniformly implemented reform.

Public Works and Welfare

Beyond core administrative functions, Sher Shah also focused on public welfare and charitable activities.

  1. Charitable Institutions: He established langars (free kitchens) to provide food for the poor and needy.
  2. Planting Trees: Trees were planted along the roads to provide shade for travelers, demonstrating his concern for public comfort.
  3. Patronage of Architecture: Despite his short reign, Sher Shah was a patron of architecture. His own tomb at Sasaram, Bihar, is a magnificent example of Indo-Islamic architecture, and he also contributed to the construction of the Purana Qila and Qila-i Kuhna mosque in Delhi.

Sher Shah’s administrative reforms were a testament to his practical genius and foresight. He successfully created a highly centralized and efficient administrative machinery that brought unprecedented peace, order, and prosperity to his empire. His land revenue system was equitable and significantly increased state revenue, while his currency reforms streamlined trade and fostered economic growth. The extensive road network and sarais not only facilitated commerce but also strengthened the state’s control and communication.

The brevity of his rule (only five years) meant that some of his reforms, particularly at the local level, might not have been fully implemented or ingrained across the vast empire. However, the conceptual framework and practical innovations he introduced proved to be incredibly robust. Many historians credit him with laying the groundwork for the future Mughal administration, especially under Akbar. The rupia, the concept of direct land revenue assessment, the dagh and chehra systems in the military, and the extensive public works infrastructure were all elements that the Mughals either adopted directly or built upon. Sher Shah’s legacy is thus not just that of a conqueror but primarily that of a brilliant administrator who left an enduring impact on the governance of India.