India’s foreign policy, often described as a complex tapestry woven from historical legacies, geopolitical realities, and evolving national interests, underwent a significant transformation post-1991. The year 1991 serves as a watershed moment, not merely for India’s economic landscape with the ushering in of liberalisation reforms, but profoundly for its external relations. Prior to this period, Indian foreign policy was largely characterised by its unwavering commitment to Non-Alignment, a doctrine born out of the Cold War bipolarity, a strong emphasis on self-reliance, and a cautious approach to global economic integration. Its engagement with the world was often viewed through an ideological lens, shaped by anti-colonial solidarity and a preference for state-led development models.

The collapse of the Soviet Union, India’s primary strategic partner, and a severe balance of payments crisis in 1991 necessitated a radical re-evaluation of India’s domestic and international strategies. This confluence of internal economic compulsion and external geopolitical shifts triggered a paradigm shift, compelling India to re-calibrate its foreign policy objectives and instruments. While the foundational principles did not entirely vanish, the methods, priorities, and partners shifted dramatically, leading to a dynamic interplay of continuity and profound change that continues to shape India’s global engagement today.

Continuity in Indian Foreign Policy Post-1991

Despite the significant shifts, several core tenets and principles have continued to underpin Indian foreign policy post-1991, demonstrating a remarkable degree of consistency in its strategic worldview. These enduring elements reflect India’s historical experience, its self-perception as an emerging global power, and its fundamental national interests.

Strategic Autonomy (Non-Alignment 2.0): Perhaps the most prominent continuity is the enduring commitment to strategic autonomy, albeit in a reframed context often referred to as “Non-Alignment 2.0.” While the original non-alignment principle was a response to Cold War blocs, its contemporary manifestation is a commitment to independent decision-making and the avoidance of formal, binding alliances. Post-1991, as the world moved from bipolarity to unipolarity and then towards multipolarity, India steadfastly refused to become a junior partner to any major power. It seeks to maintain diversified strategic partnerships with multiple global actors – be it the United States, Russia, European Union, Japan, or its BRICS partners – without committing exclusively to any one. This approach allows India the flexibility to pursue its national interests, acquire technology and defense equipment from various sources, and take independent positions on international issues, even when they diverge from those of its partners. This is evident in its continued robust defense ties with Russia despite growing engagement with the US, or its independent stance on issues like the Ukraine conflict.

Commitment to Multilateralism and a Rules-Based Global Order: India’s faith in multilateral institutions and a rules-based international order has remained a cornerstone of its foreign policy. Post-1991, India continued to advocate for a more representative and equitable global governance structure. It actively participates in and contributes to the United Nations, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the G20, and various other international forums. Its consistent demand for the reform of the United Nations Security Council, seeking a permanent seat, underscores its belief in the efficacy of multilateralism, albeit with necessary adjustments to reflect contemporary power realities. India’s efforts to champion the cause of developing nations within these forums, pushing for equitable trade rules, climate justice, and global public goods, further exemplify this continuity.

South-South Cooperation and Solidarity with Developing Nations: The spirit of South-South cooperation, a defining feature of India’s foreign policy since its independence, has persisted and even expanded post-1991. India continues to position itself as a voice for the Global South, offering developmental assistance, technical expertise, and capacity building to fellow developing countries, particularly in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Initiatives like the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, concessional lines of credit, and humanitarian assistance demonstrate this enduring commitment. While the economic context for this cooperation has shifted (from ideological solidarity to a more pragmatic partnership for growth), the underlying principle of collective self-reliance and mutual benefit for developing nations remains intact.

Focus on the Immediate Neighbourhood (Neighbourhood First): The importance of India’s immediate geographical neighbourhood has always been paramount for its security and prosperity, and this continues to be a core focus. While the approach has evolved, the strategic centrality of South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) remains undeniable. Post-1991, India intensified efforts to foster regional cooperation and connectivity, even as challenges with specific neighbours persisted. The ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy, articulated more recently, builds upon this long-standing principle, aiming to enhance economic, political, and security ties with countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, while also managing complex relations with Pakistan and China. Regional groupings like SAARC (despite its challenges) and BIMSTEC reflect this enduring emphasis on regional stability and prosperity.

Emphasis on Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity: India’s resolute stance on its sovereignty and territorial integrity, particularly concerning contested borders and internal security issues, has remained unwavering. This foundational principle dictates its responses to challenges in Kashmir, its long-standing border disputes with China, and its approach to cross-border terrorism emanating from Pakistan. Any external interference in its internal affairs is consistently rejected, reflecting a deep-seated commitment to national sovereignty.

Nuclear Deterrence and Responsible Nuclear Power Status: Following the 1998 nuclear tests, India declared itself a nuclear weapon state and articulated a doctrine of “No First Use” (NFU) and “Minimum Credible Deterrence.” This doctrine has remained consistent, underscoring India’s commitment to a responsible and defensive nuclear posture. It views its nuclear arsenal as a deterrent against potential threats, primarily from its nuclear-armed neighbours, and a necessary component of its national security architecture. Its non-proliferation record and commitment to global disarmament, while maintaining its deterrent, also reflect a consistent, albeit evolving, stance on nuclear issues.

Change in Indian Foreign Policy Post-1991

The post-1991 period witnessed transformative changes in India’s foreign policy, driven by a confluence of internal economic imperatives and profound shifts in the global geopolitical landscape. These changes reflect India’s transition from a somewhat inward-looking, ideologically driven state to a more outward-oriented, pragmatic, and economically integrated global actor.

Economic Diplomacy as the Central Pillar: Perhaps the most significant change post-1991 was the elevation of economic diplomacy to the forefront of India’s foreign policy. The liberalisation reforms necessitated greater integration with the global economy, requiring foreign policy to actively seek trade opportunities, attract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), secure energy resources, and access critical technologies. Diplomatic missions worldwide transformed into economic promotion hubs, aggressively seeking market access for Indian goods and services, facilitating investments into India, and forging economic partnerships. This marked a distinct departure from the earlier phase where economic engagement was often viewed with suspicion, and self-reliance was pursued through import substitution. Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), bilateral investment treaties, and engagement with global economic forums became central to India’s diplomatic agenda.

Proactive Engagement with Major Powers and Diversification of Partnerships: The end of the Cold War and the demise of India’s primary patron, the Soviet Union, necessitated a re-evaluation of its relationships with major global powers.

  • United States: The most dramatic shift was the transformation of India-US relations from Cold War estrangement to a “strategic partnership.” This involved a significant increase in defense cooperation, intelligence sharing, and the landmark Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008), which effectively ended India’s nuclear isolation. Both nations recognized convergence on issues like counter-terrorism, maritime security in the Indo-Pacific, and promoting a rules-based order. This relationship has evolved to include quadrilateral security dialogue (Quad) with Japan and Australia, signaling a more robust strategic alignment.
  • Russia (formerly Soviet Union): While Russia remains a crucial defense and energy partner, the relationship has evolved from one of near-exclusive dependence to one among multiple partners. India has diversified its defense procurements and energy sources, reducing its strategic vulnerability to any single supplier.
  • China: Relations with China became increasingly complex. While economic engagement flourished with growing trade and investment, strategic competition and border disputes intensified. India adopted a dual-track approach of cooperation in multilateral forums (BRICS, SCO) alongside assertive management of border issues and pushback against China’s growing regional influence (e.g., opposition to Belt and Road Initiative’s implications for sovereignty).
  • Europe and Japan: India significantly enhanced its engagement with Europe and Japan, moving beyond traditional economic ties to encompass strategic and security dimensions. The “Act East” policy (an evolution of “Look East”) intensified engagement with Japan, South Korea, Australia, and ASEAN nations, seeking to balance China’s rising power and promote regional stability and economic integration.

From “Look East” to “Act East”: The “Look East” policy, initiated in the early 1990s, was primarily driven by economic motivations to integrate with the dynamic economies of Southeast and East Asia. Post-2014, this evolved into the more robust and strategically oriented “Act East“ policy. This shift reflected a recognition of the Indo-Pacific’s growing geopolitical significance. “Act East” incorporates stronger security cooperation, defense dialogues, joint military exercises, and a focus on connectivity projects, moving beyond mere economic ties to a comprehensive strategic partnership with the region.

Emphasis on Connectivity and Regional Integration: Recognizing the importance of physical and digital connectivity for economic growth and strategic influence, India intensified its efforts to develop infrastructure projects connecting it with its neighbours and beyond. Initiatives like the Trilateral Highway (with Myanmar and Thailand), Kaladan Multi-modal Transit Transport Project, and various energy pipelines underscore a renewed focus on regional integration, not just through trade but through physical infrastructure.

Energy Security and Resource Diplomacy: With its rapidly growing economy, India’s demand for energy and natural resources skyrocketed. This led to a proactive “energy diplomacy,” where securing reliable and diversified sources of oil, gas, and minerals became a key foreign policy objective. This drove deeper engagements with West Asian countries (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran), Central Asian republics, and African nations. India’s quest for energy security also influenced its stance on international issues and its willingness to engage with regimes previously viewed with ideological reservations.

Proactive Diaspora Engagement: Post-1991, India recognized the immense potential of its vast diaspora. The government moved from a passive to a proactive approach, actively engaging with the Indian diaspora as a strategic asset for remittances, investment, advocacy, and cultural diplomacy. The Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs (now merged with MEA), Pravasi Bharatiya Divas, and various schemes for diaspora engagement exemplify this shift, viewing overseas Indians as integral to India’s global outreach.

Addressing Non-Traditional Security Threats: While traditional security concerns like border disputes and terrorism remained, India’s foreign policy post-1991 increasingly recognized and addressed a broader spectrum of non-traditional security threats. Climate change, cyber security, maritime piracy, pandemics, and disaster management became areas requiring international cooperation and diplomatic engagement. India actively participates in global dialogues and initiatives on these issues, reflecting a comprehensive approach to national security.

Pragmatism over Ideology: The ideological underpinnings that often shaped India’s foreign policy during the Cold War era gradually gave way to a more pragmatic and outcome-oriented approach. Decision-making became less constrained by historical ideological baggage and more driven by tangible national interests, economic opportunities, and strategic necessities. This flexibility allowed India to forge partnerships with diverse countries, often on a case-by-case basis, maximizing its strategic space in a complex and rapidly evolving global order.

The period post-1991 represents a crucial juncture in the evolution of Indian foreign policy. It was a time of significant adaptation, driven by the imperatives of economic liberalization and the profound shifts in the global geopolitical landscape, particularly the end of the Cold War and the rise of a unipolar moment followed by an increasingly multipolar world. India effectively navigated this complex transition by recalibrating its external engagements while preserving core tenets of its strategic autonomy.

The dynamic interplay of continuity, such as the steadfast commitment to independent decision-making and a multipolar world order, and change, exemplified by the centrality of economic diplomacy and diversified strategic partnerships, has positioned India as a more influential and pragmatic global actor. This evolution has enabled India to pursue its national interests more effectively, leveraging its growing economic and strategic weight to shape regional and global outcomes, rather than merely reacting to them. India’s foreign policy today is a testament to its ability to adapt to a constantly changing international environment, maintaining its strategic flexibility while steadily advancing its aspirations to become a leading power in the 21st century.