Mulk Raj Anand‘s Untouchable, published in 1935, stands as a seminal work in Indian English literature, courageously pulling back the curtain on one of the most oppressive social ills of its time: untouchability. Anand, a key figure among the “Progressive Writers” movement, utilized his literary prowess to expose the systemic dehumanization inherent in the caste system, offering a stark and unflinching portrayal of the daily indignities faced by those relegated to its lowest rung. The novel is not merely a narrative; it is a powerful social commentary, a fervent plea for human dignity, and a profound exploration of an individual’s struggle against an immovable, entrenched societal prejudice.

The enduring significance of Untouchable lies not only in its groundbreaking subject matter but also in its narrative technique and profound psychological insights. Anand masterfully immerses the reader into the singular day in the life of Bakha, a young sweep-boy, revealing the world through his innocent yet increasingly disillusioned eyes. This focused narrative allows for an intense, empathetic experience, compelling the reader to confront the harsh realities of a caste-ridden society. The novel sparked immediate critical attention, notably with a powerful preface by E.M. Forster, who recognized its raw power and the authenticity of its voice. It remains a testament to literature’s capacity to challenge injustice, provoke introspection, and advocate for social reform, making it an indispensable text for understanding modern Indian history and the broader human rights struggle for equality.

Context and Social Tapestry

To fully appreciate the depth of Untouchable, it is crucial to understand the historical and social context in which it is set. The caste system, a rigid social hierarchy rooted in ancient Hindu scriptures, had for centuries dictated social roles, interactions, and even spiritual worth. At its apex were the Brahmins (priests and scholars), followed by Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers and service providers). Below even the Shudras, outside the four-fold Varna system, were the “Avarnas” or “outcastes,” who later became known as “untouchables” or Dalits. These communities were assigned tasks deemed ritually polluting, such as scavenging, cleaning latrines, tanning leather, and disposing of dead animals, thereby perpetuating a cycle of social and economic marginalization based on the concept of purity and pollution.

The early 20th century, the period in which Untouchable is set, was a time of significant social and political ferment in India. Mahatma Gandhi had emerged as a towering figure, advocating for swaraj (self-rule) and social reform, including the eradication of untouchability, which he famously termed a “blot on Hinduism.” Gandhi rebranded untouchables as “Harijans” (children of God) and championed their integration into society through a change of heart and dignity of labour. Alongside Gandhi’s spiritual and moral appeal, other reform movements, such as the Arya Samaj, also sought to challenge caste rigidities, while emerging figures like B.R. Ambedkar, himself a Dalit, advocated for political rights and radical social restructuring. Anand, influenced by his own experiences, Western humanism, Fabian socialism, and Marxist thought, chose to articulate the plight of the untouchables not through academic discourse but through the visceral reality of one individual’s life, grounding the abstract concept of oppression in concrete human suffering. The fictional town of Bulandshahr, with its distinct Brahmin quarters, merchant streets, and the segregated sweepers’ colony, serves as a microcosm of this deeply stratified society.

Bakha: The Human Face of Oppression

The novel centers on Bakha, a young man of eighteen, who embodies the paradox of his existence. As a sweeper, his job is to clean the most impure waste, yet he yearns for cleanliness, self-respect, and a life beyond the confines of his birth. Anand skillfully portrays Bakha’s internal world, revealing a character who is neither fully resigned nor overtly rebellious, but rather oscillates between a quiet longing for dignity and the crushing weight of his societal proscription. Bakha’s aspirations are remarkably simple: a pair of Western-style trousers, a clean shirt, a love for hockey, and a desire to be seen and treated as a human being. His daily rituals, meticulously described by Anand, highlight his innate fastidiousness—his careful washing, his attempt to appear presentable despite his profession. This meticulousness stands in stark contrast to the dirt and squalor of his surroundings and the perceived “impurity” of his being by the upper castes.

Bakha’s journey through the single day is a series of encounters that strip away his innocence and underscore his vulnerability. From the moment he wakes up and performs his demeaning task of cleaning latrines, through his humiliation at the temple where he is cursed for “polluting” a Brahmin, to his sister Sohini’s molestation by the temple priest, and his constant need to shout “Posh! Posh, sweeper coming!” to avoid accidental touch, each interaction reinforces his status as an outcast. Despite these indignities, Bakha possesses an intrinsic resilience and a capacity for simple joys, which makes his plight all the more poignant. He is not a revolutionary, but a person striving for recognition and respect within a system designed to deny him both. His internal monologues, often expressed through stream of consciousness, lay bare his frustrations, his budding questions about injustice, and his yearning for a world where he is not defined solely by his occupation or birth.

Major Thematic Explorations

The thematic core of Untouchable revolves around several interconnected issues that expose the brutality and irrationality of the caste system.

Untouchability and Caste Discrimination

This is the overarching theme, depicted through a relentless series of micro-aggressions and overt acts of discrimination. The very concept of “touch” becomes a weapon, an invisible barrier that segregates and subjugates. Bakha is constantly reminded of his untouchable status: water must be poured into his cupped hands rather than directly into his pot; he cannot enter temples or shops; he is yelled at for casting a shadow or for the inadvertent “pollution” of a Brahmin. Anand shows how this discrimination is not merely social but permeates every aspect of existence, from access to basic necessities like water to psychological scarring.

Purity vs. Pollution

The novel brilliantly dissects the Hindu concept of purity and pollution, revealing its inherent hypocrisy. The sweepers, who clean the filth of society, are paradoxically considered the most impure. Anand highlights the irony: those who maintain the physical cleanliness of the upper castes are deemed too unclean to touch. This ideological underpinning of the caste system is what traps Bakha and his community, justifying their perpetual ostracization. The novel questions the very basis of this “purity,” showing it as a social construct used to maintain power and privilege.

Hypocrisy of Religion and Society

Anand is particularly scathing in his critique of organized religion and the complicity of society. The temple, ostensibly a place of spiritual solace and equality, becomes a site of intense discrimination and moral depravity. The Brahmin priest, a supposed spiritual guide, not only curses Bakha but also attempts to molest his sister, Sohini, illustrating the moral bankruptcy of those who wield religious authority. This stark contrast between religious tenets of compassion and the cruel realities of practice underscores the pervasive hypocrisy. The common townspeople, by their passive acceptance or active participation in the system, are equally culpable, perpetuating the cycle of dehumanization.

Search for Dignity and Identity

Bakha’s journey is fundamentally a quest for dignity. He longs to shed the label of “untouchable” and be recognized as a human being. His attempts to imitate Western clothes and manners, his desire to play hockey, and his yearning for cleanliness are all expressions of this deeper desire for self-respect and a positive identity beyond his assigned role. The novel portrays the constant psychological toll of being denied basic human dignity, forcing Bakha to internalize the shame and humiliation, yet simultaneously nurturing a nascent desire for change.

Modernity vs. Tradition

The novel is set at a crossroads where traditional practices confront emerging modern ideas. The rigid caste system represents entrenched tradition, while the arrival of figures like Mahatma Gandhi and new technologies like the flush toilet symbolize modernity and potential avenues for change. Anand explores the tension between these forces, questioning whether age-old prejudices can be overcome by moral persuasion or technological innovation, or if a more radical societal transformation is required.

Literary Devices and Narrative Style

Anand’s literary artistry in Untouchable is key to its enduring power and impact. He employs several techniques to create a vivid, immersive, and emotionally resonant narrative.

Realism and Naturalism

Anand adopts a highly realistic and naturalistic approach, painting a stark, unvarnished picture of Bakha’s life. The descriptions of the sweepers’ colony, the squalor, the physical act of cleaning latrines, and the raw emotions of humiliation and frustration are rendered with unflinching honesty. This naturalism emphasizes the deterministic forces of society and environment on the individual, showing how Bakha’s fate is largely dictated by his birth, reinforcing the idea that he is a product of his circumstances. The details are grim, but they serve to highlight the harsh reality of untouchability, making it impossible for the reader to ignore.

Stream of Consciousness

One of Anand’s most effective techniques is the occasional use of stream of consciousness, particularly when delving into Bakha’s inner thoughts and feelings. This allows the reader direct access to Bakha’s mind, revealing his confusion, anger, hopes, and despair in an unfiltered manner. For instance, after the temple incident, Bakha’s mind races with a jumble of thoughts and emotions, moving from his anger at the Brahmin to his sister’s plight, to his own sense of injustice. This technique fosters deep empathy, as the reader experiences the world through Bakha’s subjective reality, transcending the objective depiction of events.

Symbolism

Anand imbues various elements with symbolic meaning to enrich the narrative:

  • The Flush Toilet: This is perhaps the most significant symbol. It represents a technological solution that could potentially liberate the sweepers from their demeaning manual labor. It offers a promise of cleanliness and removes the need for human “touch” in waste disposal, thereby challenging the very basis of untouchability.
  • The Jalebis: The sweet, syrupy jalebis that Bakha desires symbolize forbidden pleasure and the simple joys denied to him. His longing for them, and his inability to easily obtain them due to his status, highlights his exclusion from mainstream society’s pleasures.
  • Western Clothes: Bakha’s obsession with Western clothes (trousers, boots, hat) symbolizes his yearning for modernity, cleanliness, and a break from the traditional identity imposed upon him. They represent a desire for an alternative existence, one where he might be seen as equal.
  • The Temple: The temple symbolizes the oppressive face of orthodox religion, a place of supposed purity that ironically perpetrates the greatest forms of human impurity through its discriminatory practices and moral corruption.

Language and Perspective

Anand writes in English, yet he skillfully captures the rhythms and sensibilities of Indian life, often translating Hindustani idioms and speech patterns directly. The language is simple, direct, and powerful, avoiding ornate prose to focus on the raw emotional and social truth. The narrative is primarily told from a third-person omniscient perspective, but it is deeply focalized through Bakha’s experience. This close perspective allows for profound empathy, ensuring that the reader views the injustices not as abstract concepts but as lived realities through the eyes of the victim.

The Quest for a Solution: A Triple Proposal

The climax of the novel does not offer a neat resolution but rather presents three potential paths forward, leaving the reader to ponder their efficacy. This open-ended conclusion underscores the complexity of the problem of untouchability and Anand’s refusal to provide simplistic answers.

Colonel Hutchinson’s Christian Conversion

The first “solution” Bakha encounters is proposed by Colonel Hutchinson, a Salvation Army missionary. He suggests that Bakha convert to Christianity, arguing that it offers equality and spiritual liberation from the shackles of caste. However, Anand portrays Hutchinson as a somewhat comical and ultimately ineffectual figure, driven by a superficial understanding of Indian society and a colonial mindset. His solution feels imposed, detached from the deep-seated cultural and social roots of the problem, and fails to offer a genuine pathway to Bakha’s social integration or dignity. Bakha himself finds little solace or understanding in this proposal, seeing it as yet another external imposition.

Mahatma Gandhi’s Message of Internal Reform

Bakha then attends a rally where Mahatma Gandhi speaks. Gandhi’s message is one of internal purification, self-reliance, and dignity of labour. He urges caste Hindus to cleanse their hearts of prejudice and embrace untouchables as “Harijans.” He also encourages untouchables to abandon habits that perpetuate their marginalization and embrace cleanliness. Bakha is deeply moved by Gandhi’s words, particularly his emphasis on dignity and the shared humanity. This appeals to Bakha’s personal aspirations for cleanliness and respect. Gandhi’s solution is moral and spiritual, aiming to transform society from within by changing individual hearts and attitudes. While inspiring, it offers no immediate structural change to Bakha’s predicament.

Poet Iqbal Nath Sarshar’s Technological Solution

The most pragmatic and perhaps most promising solution is articulated by the poet Iqbal Nath Sarshar. He argues that the problem of untouchability, particularly as it relates to manual scavenging, can be solved not just by changing hearts, but by changing technology. He champions the introduction of the flush toilet, which would eliminate the need for manual scavenging altogether, thereby removing the “impure” task that defines the untouchables’ lowest status. This technological innovation would bypass the purity-pollution paradigm by mechanizing the process of waste disposal, thus liberating Bakha and his community from their demeaning profession. This solution appeals to Bakha’s practical yearning for a clean and respectable life, offering a concrete path to freedom from his most immediate burden.

Anand leaves Bakha at the end of the novel still pondering these three possibilities, unsure which path, if any, will lead to his liberation. This ambiguity reflects the author’s nuanced understanding that the eradication of untouchability requires a multifaceted approach, encompassing moral, social, and technological reforms. The novel does not offer a comfortable ending but rather a challenge to the reader to consider the complexities of social change.

Critical Reception and Enduring Legacy

Upon its publication, Untouchable was met with significant attention, primarily due to its daring subject matter. E.M. Forster’s eloquent preface immediately lent it credibility and brought it to a wider Western audience, acknowledging its “bitter cry” and “authentic voice.” In India, it was recognized as a groundbreaking work that brought the plight of the untouchables into the mainstream of Indian English literature, challenging conventional narratives and forcing a confrontation with uncomfortable truths.

The novel is celebrated for its powerful indictment of social injustice, its unflinching realism, and its deep humanism. It is a pioneering work in Indian English literature that paved the way for other socially conscious writing. Its exploration of identity, dignity, and oppression resonates far beyond the specific context of India’s caste system, making it a universal tale of human struggle against systemic prejudice. Even today, Untouchable remains highly relevant in discussions about social justice, human rights, and the ongoing challenges faced by marginalized communities globally. It serves as a stark reminder of the long shadow cast by historical prejudices and the enduring fight for equality and respect for all individuals, irrespective of their birth or occupation.

Mulk Raj Anand‘s Untouchable is more than a novel; it is a profound and poignant human document. Through the singular, harrowing day in the life of Bakha, Anand crafts an unforgettable narrative that lays bare the dehumanizing realities of untouchability in India. The novel’s strength lies in its unflinching realism, its empathetic portrayal of a marginalized individual, and its powerful indictment of a society steeped in prejudice and hypocrisy. Anand’s use of stream of consciousness, vivid symbolism, and direct language draws the reader into Bakha’s internal struggles, transforming an abstract social issue into a deeply personal tragedy.

The novel’s enduring legacy rests on its courage to tackle a taboo subject with sensitivity and intellectual rigor. By presenting multiple perspectives on potential solutions—religious conversion, moral reform, and technological innovation—Anand encourages a nuanced understanding of social change, acknowledging that there are no simple answers to deeply ingrained problems. Untouchable remains a vital text, not only as a historical account of India’s caste system but as a timeless plea for human dignity and equality, reminding us of literature’s capacity to challenge injustice and inspire empathy across cultures and generations. Its relevance continues to resonate as societies worldwide grapple with various forms of discrimination and the perpetual human quest for respect and belonging.