Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s “Morte d’Arthur,” originally published in 1842 and later incorporated into his monumental epic Idylls of the King (1859-1885), stands as a profound meditation on the twilight of an age, the fragility of ideals, and the enduring power of myth. Drawing heavily from Sir Thomas Malory’s fifteenth-century compilation Le Morte d’Arthur, Tennyson reimagines the legendary King Arthur’s final moments, focusing on his departure from the mortal realm and the poignant lament of his last knight, Sir Bedivere. The poem is not merely a retelling of a historical or mythical event; it is a deeply reflective piece that grapples with universal themes pertinent to the human condition and, specifically, to the anxieties and aspirations of Victorian England.

Alfred, as Poet Laureate for much of the Victorian era, often explored the intersection of tradition and progress, faith and doubt, and the individual’s place within a rapidly changing society. “Morte d’Arthur” encapsulates many of these concerns, presenting a symbolic narrative of loss, transition, and the elusive promise of renewal. Through the vivid imagery of a dying king, a fading chivalric order, and the mystical journey to Avilion, the poem delves into profound questions about the nature of power, the persistence of virtue, and the eternal cycle of death and rebirth. Its narrative precision and evocative language render it a timeless exploration of humanity’s confrontation with the end of an epoch and the uncertain dawn of a new one.

Main Themes of Tennyson’s Poem “Morte d’Arthur”

Tennyson’s “Morte d’Arthur” is rich with multifaceted themes that resonate deeply with both its historical context and timeless human experience. These themes intertwine to create a complex tapestry of loss, faith, duty, and the cyclical nature of existence.

1. The Passing of an Ideal and the End of an Era

The most prominent theme in “Morte d’Arthur” is the poignant lament for the end of an age and the dissolution of a noble ideal. Arthur’s kingdom, the Round Table, represented a utopian vision of chivalry, justice, and Christian virtue. Its collapse, brought about by internal strife, moral decay, and the betrayal of those closest to Arthur, signifies the failure of this grand experiment. The poem opens with Arthur defeated, his knights slain, and his dream shattered. Bedivere’s sorrow reflects not just the loss of his king, but the end of a golden age where heroism and moral purity seemingly reigned supreme. The repeated emphasis on the “old order changeth, yielding place to new” encapsulates this fundamental truth: nothing, not even the most noble of human endeavors, can resist the inexorable march of time and change. This theme resonated strongly with Victorian audiences grappling with rapid industrialization, scientific discoveries challenging traditional beliefs, and the perceived decline of traditional values, creating a sense of nostalgia for a simpler, more virtuous past.

2. Faith, Doubt, and Spiritual Crisis

A crucial underlying theme is the struggle between faith and doubt, particularly in the face of overwhelming despair and the apparent triumph of chaos. Arthur himself, despite his moral rectitude, expresses doubt about the efficacy of his reign and the ultimate purpose of his life’s work: “The old order changeth, yielding place to new, / And God fulfils Himself in many ways, / Lest one good custom should corrupt the world.” His words suggest a divine plan that transcends human understanding, a way of coping with the failure of his earthly kingdom. Bedivere, too, experiences a profound crisis of faith. His reluctance to cast Excalibur into the lake stems from a human attachment to a tangible symbol of power and glory, a doubt that a spiritual act could truly hold meaning in a world where physical ideals have crumbled. His repeated failures to obey Arthur’s command underscore the human tendency to cling to the material and visible, even when a higher, spiritual command is given. Arthur’s subsequent admonition, “More things are wrought by prayer than this world dreams of,” serves as a powerful affirmation of the unseen spiritual power and the enduring significance of faith, even when worldly endeavors seem to fail. This theme directly addresses Victorian anxieties about the erosion of religious belief in an age of scientific rationalism.

3. Duty, Obedience, and Human Weakness

The character of Sir Bedivere becomes the focal point for the theme of duty and the struggle against human weakness. As the last surviving knight, he bears the immense burden of carrying out Arthur’s final, sacred commands. His internal conflict – the repeated failure to throw Excalibur into the lake, driven by his admiration for the sword’s beauty and his desire to preserve a relic of a glorious past – highlights the human propensity to prioritize personal sentiment and material attachment over a greater, spiritual duty. His actions demonstrate the inherent weakness and fallibility of even the most loyal of servants. However, his eventual obedience, spurred by Arthur’s stern rebukes, represents the ultimate triumph of duty and loyalty. This struggle elevates Bedivere from a mere chronicler to a symbolic representation of humanity grappling with its obligations in the face of temptation and attachment to the past. His final act of throwing the sword signifies a letting go of the material world and an embrace of the spiritual transition.

4. The Power of Memory and the Enduring Legacy

Even as Arthur’s physical presence departs, the poem emphasizes the enduring power of memory and narrative in preserving his legacy. Bedivere, as the sole survivor and witness, is tasked with carrying the story forward. He becomes the living repository of Arthur’s deeds and ideals, ensuring that the “good custom” of the Round Table, though physically dissolved, will persist in human memory. The narrative frame of “Morte d’Arthur” within The Epic (the introductory poem that frames the Idylls) reinforces this theme, with the poet speaking of the “old imperfect” verses that “may be read, and learnt, and woven into song.” This self-referential aspect highlights the poem’s own role in keeping the Arthurian legend alive. Arthur’s ambiguous “death” – his journey to Avilion, where he may be healed or reborn – suggests that the ideal he represents is not truly vanquished but merely transformed or awaiting a new manifestation. The hope for the “once and future king” underscores the belief that even if physical forms perish, ideals and stories can transcend time, offering inspiration and guidance for future generations.

5. Transition, Transformation, and Renewal

While marked by loss, “Morte d’Arthur” is not solely a poem of despair. It also explores themes of transition and the potential for renewal. Arthur’s departure is not a definitive end but a journey to a mystical land, “Avilion, where falls not hail, or rain, or any snow, / Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it lies / Deep-meadow’d, happy, fair with orchard-lawns / And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea.” This description evokes a paradise, a place of healing and rest, suggesting that death is merely a transition to another state of being or consciousness. The image of the barge filled with queens, mysterious and divine, further enhances this sense of mystical transformation. Arthur’s ambiguous fate — whether he dies or is merely “healed of his grievous wound” to return one day — leaves open the possibility of a cyclical rebirth of the ideal. The “old order changeth, yielding place to new” implies a continuous process of evolution, where even perceived failures contribute to future growth. This offers a glimmer of hope amidst the melancholy, suggesting that even from destruction, new forms of progress and virtue can emerge.

Allegorical Significance of the Poem

“Morte d’Arthur” operates on a powerful allegorical level, extending beyond a simple narrative of a dying king to explore profound truths about society, belief, and the human spirit. Tennyson infused the legendary tale with layers of symbolic meaning, making it a reflection of his own era’s concerns and timeless philosophical questions.

1. Arthur as an Allegory for the Ideal and Moral Authority

King Arthur himself serves as the central allegorical figure, representing the embodiment of an ideal. He is not merely a historical or mythical ruler but an allegory for perfect kingship, moral purity, and the pursuit of Christian virtue. His reign symbolizes the potential for humanity to establish a truly just and ordered society, guided by lofty principles of chivalry, honor, and faith. His physical strength is secondary to his moral authority. His ultimate failure and demise, therefore, allegorically represent the fragility of such an ideal in the face of human imperfection, betrayal, and the inherent difficulties of sustaining a perfectly virtuous society. For Victorian audiences, Arthur’s fall could be seen as an allegory for the perceived erosion of traditional moral values, the challenges posed by materialism, or the decline of religious certainty in an increasingly industrialized and scientific age. Yet, his ambiguous departure also holds the allegorical promise that the ideal, though perhaps temporarily vanquished, remains eternally potent and capable of future manifestation.

2. Excalibur as an Allegory for Divine Power and Moral Authority

The sword Excalibur is a potent allegorical symbol. It represents not merely a weapon, but the divine sanction and moral authority that legitimized Arthur’s rule and sustained his kingdom. It embodies the concept of “right rule” and the power derived from righteousness. Its miraculous emergence from the lake and its return to the lake are highly symbolic. The “lady of the lake” granting Excalibur signifies a divine bestowal of power, indicating that Arthur’s authority was not merely earthly but spiritually ordained. Bedivere’s struggle to cast it back into the lake is allegorical of humanity’s reluctance to relinquish tangible symbols of power and to trust in unseen, spiritual forces. His eventual obedience signifies the release of worldly attachment and the return of moral authority to its divine source, suggesting that true power transcends physical manifestation and ultimately rests in the spiritual realm. The loss of Excalibur signifies the end of an era governed by this specific manifestation of divine order.

3. The Round Table as an Allegory for Ordered Society and Utopia

The Round Table, with its perfect circularity, allegorically represents a utopian ideal of an ordered, egalitarian society where all knights are equal and dedicated to noble pursuits. It symbolizes the attempt to create a perfect social and moral structure on Earth, guided by chivalric code and Christian principles. The dissolution of the Round Table and the collapse of Arthur’s kingdom serve as an allegory for the inherent limitations and eventual decay of even the most well-intentioned human systems. It reflects the Victorian era’s anxieties about social fragmentation, the challenges of maintaining moral cohesion amidst rapid change, and the persistent human flaws that undermine attempts at creating a perfect society. The failure of the Round Table suggests that no earthly ideal can remain static or perfectly sustained, implying a need for constant adaptation or spiritual renewal.

4. Sir Bedivere as an Allegory for Humanity and the Custodian of Memory

Sir Bedivere is more than just a loyal knight; he functions as an allegory for humanity itself. His initial human weakness and attachment to the physical world (his reluctance to throw Excalibur) represent the universal struggle between material temptation and spiritual duty. He embodies the skeptical, often flawed, but ultimately capable aspect of human nature that grapples with divine commands. His role as the last witness and the one tasked with narrating Arthur’s end also makes him an allegory for the chronicler, the keeper of history, and the transmitter of cultural memory. Through Bedivere, Tennyson explores how stories and ideals are carried forward through generations, ensuring the survival of meaning even when their physical manifestations vanish.

5. Avilion and the Barge as Allegory for Transition and Rebirth

The mysterious barge that carries Arthur away to Avilion, and Avilion itself, serve as powerful allegorical images of transition, the afterlife, and the possibility of spiritual renewal. The barge, guided by “three Queens, with crowns of gold,” is a classical and mythical symbol of passage to the underworld or a spiritual realm. Avilion, often described as a paradisiacal island, is allegorical of a place of healing, rest, and perhaps even rebirth. It is not necessarily a final resting place but a transitional space where the ideal, though wounded, is preserved and prepared for a potential return. This ambiguity about Arthur’s “death” – whether he truly dies or is merely healed – is central to its allegorical meaning, suggesting that the ideals he represents transcend mortal existence. It offers an allegorical comfort that even in apparent endings, there lies the potential for continuity, transformation, and a new beginning, echoing Christian concepts of resurrection and the cyclical nature of historical progress.

In conclusion, “Morte d’Arthur” stands as a monumental work in Tennyson’s oeuvre, a profound poetic exploration that transcends its mythical source material to address universal human experiences. The poem’s central themes of the passing of an ideal, the interplay of faith and doubt, the weight of duty, and the enduring power of memory converge to paint a picture of loss tempered by the promise of renewal. Tennyson masterfully uses the epic tale of King Arthur’s final moments to lament the demise of a golden age and to reflect on the inexorable march of change that affects all societies and individuals.

Furthermore, the poem’s allegorical layers amplify its resonance, transforming Arthur, Excalibur, the Round Table, Bedivere, and Avilion into potent symbols. These allegories speak to the fragility of human constructs, the enduring power of spiritual principles, and the cyclical nature of history where old orders give way to new, yet ideals persist through narrative and belief. Tennyson’s “Morte d’Arthur” is not simply a historical elegy but a timeless meditation on the human condition, grappling with Victorian anxieties while offering a hopeful vision of transformation and the ultimate triumph of the spirit over material decay. Its rich tapestry of themes and allegorical depth ensures its continued relevance as a cornerstone of English literature.