The concept of a “circulation library,” where books and other materials can be borrowed for use outside the library premises, has a rich and complex history that predates the modern public library system. Pinpointing the absolute “first” is challenging because the definition of “circulation library” itself has evolved significantly over centuries, encompassing various models from private collections to commercial ventures and, eventually, publicly funded institutions. Early forms of lending existed in academic and monastic settings, but these were far removed from the general public access implied by contemporary understanding of a circulation library.

The journey toward the modern circulation library reflects broader societal shifts, including the democratization of knowledge, the expansion of literacy, and the increasing recognition of education as a public good. From ancient archives primarily for preservation and scholarly consultation, through medieval monastic libraries often restricted to religious orders, to the more accessible subscription and commercial lending libraries of the Enlightenment, each stage contributed to the eventual emergence of institutions dedicated to lending materials to a broad public. Understanding the “first” requires an examination of these precursors and the specific criteria – such as public funding, free access, and an explicit lending function – that define the modern institution.

The Ancestors of Circulation: Libraries Before Public Lending

Before the advent of dedicated circulation libraries, various forms of collections served different purposes. Ancient libraries, such as the legendary Library of Alexandria or the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh, were primarily repositories of knowledge, intended for scholarship, preservation, and administrative record-keeping. Access was generally restricted to scholars, scribes, or royalty, and the concept of borrowing materials for private use outside the premises was not a widespread practice. Scrolls and tablets were meticulously guarded, copied by hand, and consulted within controlled environments.

In Middle Ages Europe, monastic libraries and later university libraries served the intellectual and spiritual needs of specific communities. Books, precious due to their handwritten nature, were often chained to desks to prevent theft or unauthorized removal. While inter-monastic lending certainly occurred, and scholars within a university might borrow from their institution’s collection, this was a far cry from public circulation. These institutions were not established with the intent of serving a general populace, nor did they possess the infrastructure or philosophy to facilitate widespread lending. The primary function remained preservation and on-site study for a select few.

The stirrings of what might be termed “circulation” began subtly with the advent of printing. As books became less expensive and more numerous in the 15th and 16th centuries, private collections grew, and the informal lending among scholars, gentry, and the burgeoning middle class became more feasible. However, these were personal arrangements, not institutionalized “libraries” in the sense of a public service. The idea of a formal institution dedicated to providing books for temporary off-site use by a community was still in its nascent stages.

The Rise of For-Profit and Subscription-Based Circulation

The 18th century marked a significant turning point with the emergence of institutions explicitly designed for the lending of books. These early models, however, were not “public” in the modern sense, as they typically required a fee or subscription. They can be broadly categorized into two types: commercial circulating libraries and subscription libraries.

Commercial Circulating Libraries (For-Profit)

One of the earliest forms of institutionalized circulation emerged in the form of commercial circulating libraries. These were private businesses, often run by booksellers, who charged a fee for borrowing books, either per volume or through a subscription. This model gained traction in England around the mid-18th century.

Samuel Fancourt’s Circulating Library (c. 1740): While evidence suggests earlier informal lending by booksellers, Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister and bookseller, is often credited with establishing one of the earliest and most notable commercial circulating libraries in London around 1740. Fancourt’s innovation was to systematically acquire new books and make them available for hire to the public for a fee. These libraries catered to a growing demand for reading material, particularly novels, which were increasingly popular but expensive to purchase outright. They democratized access to new literature, albeit for a paying clientele, and played a crucial role in shaping reading habits and the publishing industry. Other notable examples include the libraries run by William Bathoe (c. 1728) and Andrew Millar (c. 1740s) in London. These were not public libraries in the sense of being tax-funded or freely accessible, but they undeniably provided a “circulation” service.

Subscription Libraries (Proprietary Libraries)

Parallel to the commercial model, subscription libraries (also known as proprietary libraries or social libraries) emerged, often driven by a more philanthropic or educational impulse rather than pure profit. Members paid an annual fee or purchased shares to gain access to the collection and the right to borrow books.

The Library Company of Philadelphia (1731): This institution is frequently cited as a strong contender for “the first circulation library” if one considers “circulation” as organized lending beyond private collections, even if it was not freely accessible to all. Established by Benjamin Franklin and members of his Junto, a club for mutual improvement, the Library Company of Philadelphia was founded in 1731. Its original purpose was to provide access to books that individuals could not afford or find easily. Members paid a fee to join and annual dues. The library quickly became a vital intellectual hub in colonial America, acquiring a significant collection of books on various subjects. Books were explicitly lent to members, making it a clear example of a functioning circulation library, albeit one operating on a membership model rather than universal free access. Its success inspired the formation of many similar subscription libraries across the American colonies.

Other significant early subscription libraries include:

  • Dr. Thomas Bray’s Parochial Libraries (late 17th/early 18th century): While not public in the modern sense, Dr. Bray, an Anglican minister, initiated a scheme in England and America to establish libraries in parishes, primarily for the use of clergy. However, some of these collections were also made accessible to parishioners, blurring the lines towards broader access.
  • The Redwood Library and Athenaeum (Newport, Rhode Island, 1747): Another prominent example of an early subscription library in America.
  • The Charleston Library Society (Charleston, South Carolina, 1748): Similar to the Library Company of Philadelphia, it was founded by a group of citizens who pooled resources to acquire books for their mutual benefit and lending.

These subscription libraries represented a significant step towards organized access to knowledge and explicitly embraced the concept of circulation. They served as vital intellectual centers and precursors to truly public institutions, demonstrating a collective will to share and borrow books.

The Birth of the Free, Public Circulation Library

The concept of a library freely accessible to all citizens, supported by public funds, was a much later development, primarily taking root in the mid-19th century. This marked the shift from private, for-profit, or subscription-based models to the modern public library.

Early American Innovations: Tax-Supported Models

In the United States, some communities began experimenting with tax-supported libraries before widespread legislation.

Peterborough Town Library (1833): Often cited as a pioneering institution, the Peterborough Town Library in Peterborough, New Hampshire, is widely regarded as the first tax-supported free public library in the United States. It was established in 1833 by the town of Peterborough using public tax money to purchase books and make them available to all residents, free of charge. This was a revolutionary concept at the time, predating formal state or national legislation for public libraries. While smaller in scale compared to later municipal libraries, its funding mechanism and free access model align with the core principles of a modern public circulation library. The town voted to appropriate funds for the library, demonstrating a community commitment to free access to knowledge.

The British Public Libraries Act and Its Impact

The mid-19th century saw a significant legislative push for public libraries in the United Kingdom, driven by social reformers and a growing belief in the educational and moral benefits of widespread literacy.

The Public Libraries Act 1850 (UK): This landmark legislation, championed by figures like William Ewart and Joseph Brotherton, allowed local boroughs to establish and maintain public libraries and museums using rates (local taxes). This Act provided the legal and financial framework for the creation of truly public libraries accessible to all.

Manchester Free Library (1852): Following the passage of the Public Libraries Act, the Manchester Free Library (now Manchester Central Library) was opened in 1852. It is widely considered the first rate-supported free public library established under the provisions of the 1850 Act that offered free circulation of books to all citizens. Its establishment was a significant moment in the history of public libraries, demonstrating the practical implementation of the new legislation. The library quickly attracted a large number of users, validating the demand for free access to books and proving the success of the public library model.

The American Paradigm: Large Municipal Public Libraries

In the United States, the concept of large, centrally located public libraries funded by municipalities for the benefit of all citizens truly took hold in the mid-19th century, often inspired by both American and British precedents.

Boston Public Library (1854): The Boston Public Library, opened in 1854, is often celebrated as the first large municipal public library in the United States to offer free circulation to its citizens. While Peterborough had established a tax-supported library earlier, the Boston Public Library represented a new scale and ambition, explicitly designed to serve a large urban population with a comprehensive collection and a clear mission for universal access to knowledge. Influential figures like George Ticknor and Edward Everett were instrumental in its founding, advocating for a library that would provide education and self-improvement opportunities for all segments of society, regardless of their ability to pay. It set a precedent for the development of public library systems across the US, solidifying the model of free, publicly funded institutions as vital civic resources. Its commitment to the “people’s university” model, with books available for borrowing by anyone, cemented its place as a pioneering circulation library.

Refinining “When and By Whom”: A Multi-faceted Answer

Given the historical evolution, the answer to “When and by whom was the first circulation library established?” depends entirely on the precise definition of “circulation library”:

  1. If “circulation library” means any organized institution where books can be borrowed for a fee:

    • When: Mid-18th century.
    • By whom: Booksellers like Samuel Fancourt (London, c. 1740) for commercial circulating libraries.
    • By whom: Benjamin Franklin and his Junto for the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731) for subscription libraries. The Library Company of Philadelphia is a very strong contender for the “first” in this broader, pre-public category.

  2. If “circulation library” specifically means the first tax-supported, free public library:

    • When: 1833.
    • By whom: The town of Peterborough, New Hampshire, which voted to establish and fund the Peterborough Town Library.

  3. If “circulation library” means the first large-scale, rate-supported public library under enabling legislation (UK):

    • When: 1852.
    • By whom: The city of Manchester, UK, following the Public Libraries Act 1850.

  4. If “circulation library” means the first large municipal public library offering free circulation (US):

    • When: 1854.
    • By whom: The city of Boston, Massachusetts, with the influential backing of figures like George Ticknor and Edward Everett, who envisioned the Boston Public Library as a beacon of public education.

Each of these institutions represents a significant milestone in the journey towards the modern public library, each being “first” in a particular sense. The Library Company of Philadelphia pioneered the subscription model for collective book access and lending. The Peterborough Town Library established the precedent of tax-funded, free access in a local context. The Manchester Free Library set the standard for urban public libraries under enabling legislation, and the Boston Public Library exemplified the large-scale municipal commitment to free intellectual access for all citizens.

The history of the circulation library is a narrative of increasing accessibility and democratization of knowledge. From exclusive scholarly repositories and private collections, the idea of lending books gradually expanded through commercial enterprises and subscription models to finally become a universally accessible public service. The earliest forms of organized circulation emerged in the 18th century with commercial and proprietary libraries, which charged a fee for borrowing. However, the true breakthrough, leading to the public library as we know it today, occurred in the 19th century. The Peterborough Town Library in 1833 pioneered the concept of a tax-supported, free-to-all library in the United States. This was closely followed by legislative advancements in the United Kingdom, culminating in the establishment of the Manchester Free Library in 1852 under the Public Libraries Act, which codified the public, rate-supported model. Concurrently, the Boston Public Library, opened in 1854, set a high standard for large-scale, free municipal libraries in the U.S., cementing the principle of universal access.

Therefore, while there isn’t a single definitive “first” without specifying the criteria, the evolution clearly points to the mid-19th century as the period when the free, public circulation library, supported by taxation and accessible to all citizens, truly came into being. This transformation was not just about lending books; it was about a fundamental shift in societal values, recognizing that access to information and education was a right, not a privilege, and a crucial component of a literate and democratic society. These pioneering institutions laid the groundwork for the global network of public libraries that continue to serve as vital community hubs and engines of knowledge.