Which are the disciplines that come under the stream of natural and applied sciences? Describe the general features of academic writing in these disciplines.

The expansive domain of science is traditionally categorized into two broad streams: natural sciences and applied sciences. While distinct in their primary objectives, these streams are intrinsically linked, with the latter often building upon the fundamental discoveries and principles established by the former. Natural sciences are dedicated to understanding the universe through observation and experimentation, seeking to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. They delve into the fundamental laws governing the physical and biological world, driven by curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake.

Conversely, applied sciences focus on the practical application of this scientific knowledge to solve real-world problems, innovate technologies, and improve human life. They translate theoretical understanding into tangible solutions, bridging the gap between discovery and utility. The academic writing within these disciplines reflects their shared commitment to empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and objective communication, albeit with specific nuances tailored to their respective aims. Understanding these disciplines and their writing conventions is crucial for anyone engaging with scientific discourse.

Disciplines within Natural Sciences

Natural sciences encompass a vast array of fields dedicated to observing, explaining, and predicting natural phenomena. They form the foundational bedrock upon which applied sciences are built, pursuing fundamental truths about the universe.

Physics: Often considered the most fundamental of the natural sciences, physics is the study of matter, energy, space, and time, and the interactions between them. It seeks to understand the basic constituents of the universe and the fundamental forces that govern their behavior. Sub-disciplines within physics are numerous and diverse:

Classical Mechanics: Deals with the motion of macroscopic objects, from planetary orbits to the trajectory of a thrown ball.
Thermodynamics: Studies heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work, focusing on energy transfer and entropy.
Electromagnetism: Investigates the interactions between electric currents and magnetic fields, underpinning technologies from electric motors to telecommunications.
Optics: Focuses on the behavior and properties of light, including its interaction with matter, leading to advancements in lasers and imaging.
Quantum Mechanics: Explores phenomena at atomic and subatomic scales, revealing the probabilistic nature of reality and forming the basis for quantum computing and nanotechnology.
Relativity: Einstein’s theories describing the relationship between space and time, and the equivalence of mass and energy, crucial for understanding cosmology and astrophysics.
Astrophysics and Cosmology: Applies physical principles to celestial objects and the universe as a whole, studying stars, galaxies, black holes, and the origin and evolution of the cosmos.

Chemistry: Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter, and how matter undergoes changes. It investigates the composition, structure, and properties of substances, as well as the reactions they undergo and the energy changes that accompany these processes. Key branches include:

Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon-containing compounds, which form the basis of all known life. Essential for pharmaceuticals, plastics, and petrochemicals.
Inorganic Chemistry: Focuses on compounds that do not primarily contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, including metals, minerals, and organometallic compounds.
Physical Chemistry: Applies principles of physics to chemical systems, studying the energetic and dynamic aspects of chemical reactions and processes.
Analytical Chemistry: Involves the identification, quantification, and separation of chemical components in natural and artificial samples. Crucial for quality control, forensic science, and environmental monitoring.
Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms, bridging biology and chemistry. Essential for understanding metabolism, genetics, and disease.

Biology: Biology is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. It is an incredibly diverse field, encompassing life at all levels, from molecules to ecosystems.

Molecular Biology: Focuses on biological activity at the molecular level, particularly the interactions between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how they regulate life processes.
Cell Biology: The study of cell structure and function, the fundamental unit of life.
Genetics: Investigates heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics, focusing on genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.
Physiology: Explores the normal functioning of living organisms and their parts, from organs to tissues and cells.
Ecology: The study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other, examining ecosystems, populations, and communities.
Zoology: The scientific study of animals, including their classification, behavior, evolution, and distribution.
Botany: The scientific study of plants, including their structure, function, classification, ecology, and economic importance.
Microbiology: The study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, and their roles in health, disease, and the environment.
Evolutionary Biology: Examines the evolutionary processes that have led to the diversity of life on Earth.

Earth Sciences (Geosciences): These disciplines are dedicated to the study of the Earth and its interconnected systems. They investigate the planet’s physical structure, its history, its atmosphere, and its oceans.

Geology: The study of the Earth’s solid features, including rocks, minerals, geological structures, and the processes that shape the planet’s surface and interior.
Oceanography: The scientific study of the oceans, including their physical and chemical properties, marine life, and geological features of the ocean floor.
Meteorology: Focuses on the Earth’s atmosphere, studying weather patterns, atmospheric phenomena, and climate.
Climatology: A long-term study of climate patterns and changes, often intertwined with environmental science.
Environmental Science: An interdisciplinary field that integrates physical, biological, and information sciences to study the environment and the solution of environmental problems. While having an applied aspect, its core understanding of natural systems places it here.

Astronomy: While often considered a branch of physics, astronomy warrants separate mention due to its distinct focus. It is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere (such as the cosmic microwave background radiation). It utilizes principles from physics, chemistry, and mathematics to understand the universe beyond Earth.

Disciplines within Applied Sciences

Applied sciences utilize the fundamental knowledge gained from natural sciences to develop practical solutions, technologies, and methodologies that address human needs and societal challenges. They are problem-oriented and often interdisciplinary.

Engineering: Perhaps the most prominent applied science, engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, build, and maintain structures, machines, systems, and processes. It bridges scientific discovery with technological innovation.

Civil Engineering: Designs and constructs infrastructure such as roads, bridges, buildings, water systems, and public works.
Mechanical Engineering: Deals with the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems, from engines to robotic arms.
Electrical Engineering: Focuses on electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism, encompassing power generation, telecommunications, and circuit design.
Chemical Engineering: Applies principles of chemistry, physics, and biology to design, operate, and optimize processes that transform raw materials into valuable products (e.g., pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals).
Computer Engineering: Integrates electrical engineering and computer science to develop computer hardware and software.
Aerospace Engineering: Specializes in the design, development, and production of aircraft and spacecraft.
Biomedical Engineering: Combines engineering principles with medical and biological sciences to design medical devices, diagnostic tools, and therapeutic solutions.
Environmental Engineering: Applies scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment, addressing issues like pollution control, waste management, and sustainable development.

Medicine and Health Sciences: These fields apply biological, chemical, and physical sciences to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, and the promotion of health.

Clinical Medicine: Directly involves patient care, encompassing specialties like internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, and psychiatry.
Public Health: Focuses on improving health outcomes at a community or population level through disease prevention, health promotion, and health policy.
Pharmacy: Deals with the preparation, dispensing, and appropriate use of medications.
Nursing: Provides direct patient care, health education, and advocacy, focusing on holistic well-being.
Veterinary Medicine: Applies medical principles to the health and welfare of animals.
Biomedical Research: Conducts scientific investigations to understand health and disease at a fundamental level, often leading to new diagnostic tools or therapies.

Computer Science: While having strong theoretical roots (often linked to mathematics and logic), computer science is largely applied science as it focuses on the design and implementation of computational systems.

Software Engineering: Software Engineering Applies systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approaches to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Develops systems that can learn, reason, and make decisions, mimicking human cognitive functions.
Data Science: Utilizes scientific methods, processes, algorithms, and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data in various forms, both structured and unstructured.
Cybersecurity: Focuses on protecting computer systems and networks from digital attacks.

Agricultural Sciences: These disciplines apply scientific knowledge to the production and processing of food, fiber, and other agricultural products.

Agronomy: Deals with the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation.
Horticulture: Focuses on the art and science of cultivating plants, especially fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants.
Animal Science: Deals with the biology and management of domestic animals, including livestock and poultry.
Food Science: Applies scientific principles to the study of food, its properties, processing, preservation, quality control, and safety.

Materials Science and Engineering: This interdisciplinary field investigates the relationship between the structure and properties of materials, and how these can be manipulated to create new materials with specific desired characteristics. It applies principles from physics, chemistry, and engineering.

Biotechnology: This field harnesses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to develop or create different products. It draws heavily from molecular biology, genetics, and biochemistry to create applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry (e.g., genetic engineering, drug development, biofuels).

General Features of Academic Writing in Natural and Applied Sciences

Academic writing in natural and applied sciences is characterized by a distinctive set of features that reflect the epistemological foundations of these disciplines: a commitment to empiricism, objectivity, logical reasoning, and clarity. The primary goal is to communicate research findings, methodologies, and theoretical advancements effectively and unambiguously to a specialized audience.

Objectivity and Impersonality: A hallmark of scientific writing is its unwavering focus on objectivity. The research itself, and the data it yields, are foregrounded, rather than the subjective opinions or personal feelings of the author. This is typically achieved through:

Third-person narration: Avoiding “I” or “we” (though some modern scientific journals increasingly permit “we” in methods sections for clarity on researcher actions, the preference often remains for passive voice or objective constructions like “The experiment demonstrated…”).
Neutral language: Avoiding emotive, biased, or informal language. Statements are fact-based and verifiable.
Focus on observable phenomena: Descriptions stick to what was observed or measured, rather than interpretations until the discussion section.

Precision and Accuracy: Scientific communication demands extreme precision. Every term, measurement, and description must be exact and unambiguous to ensure reproducibility and accurate interpretation.

Exact Terminology: Use of specific scientific vocabulary (e.g., “Escherichia coli” instead of “a type of bacteria,” “photovoltaic cell” instead of “solar panel” when discussing technical details).
Quantification: Whenever possible, qualitative observations are supported by quantitative data, including precise measurements, units (SI units are preferred), and statistical indicators.
Clear Definitions: If a term can have multiple meanings or is newly introduced, it must be clearly defined.
Avoiding Vagueness: Phrases like “some,” “many,” “a lot,” or “around” are replaced with specific numbers or ranges.

Clarity and Conciseness: While precision is paramount, it should not come at the expense of clarity. Scientific writing aims to convey complex information in the most direct and economical way possible.

Direct Language: Sentences are typically structured in a straightforward subject-verb-object format. Long, convoluted sentences are avoided.
Logical Flow: Ideas are presented in a coherent, sequential manner, often moving from general background to specific methods, results, and conclusions.
Avoidance of Redundancy: Every word and phrase serves a purpose.
Effective Use of Jargon: While specialized terminology is necessary, it is used judiciously and only when it contributes to precision and conciseness, not to obscure meaning.

Empirical Evidence and Data-Driven Arguments: The backbone of scientific writing is empirical evidence. Claims and conclusions must be supported by data derived from experiments, observations, or rigorous analysis.

Data Presentation: Results are presented clearly and efficiently, often using tables, graphs, and figures. These visual aids are accompanied by textual explanations that highlight key findings.
Statistical Analysis: Data are typically subjected to statistical analysis to determine significance, trends, and relationships, with appropriate statistical tests and p-values reported.
Interpretation of Evidence: The discussion section connects the results back to the research question, interpreting their significance in the context of existing literature and theoretical frameworks.

Structured Organization (IMRAD Format): Most scientific papers, particularly research articles, follow a highly standardized structure known as IMRAD, which stands for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.

Introduction: Provides background information, reviews relevant literature, states the research problem or question, and outlines the hypothesis and objectives of the study.
Methods (or Materials and Methods): Describes in meticulous detail how the study was conducted, including experimental design, materials used, procedures, data collection methods, and analytical techniques. This section is crucial for reproducibility.
Results: Presents the findings of the study objectively, without interpretation or discussion. This section often heavily relies on tables, figures, and graphs.
Discussion: Interprets the results, discusses their significance, relates them to the original hypothesis and previous research, acknowledges limitations, and suggests future directions.
Conclusion: (Sometimes integrated into the Discussion) Briefly summarizes the main findings and their implications.
Abstract: A concise summary of the entire paper, appearing at the beginning.
References: A comprehensive list of all sources cited.

Formal Tone: Academic writing in these disciplines maintains a formal and professional tone.

Avoidance of Colloquialisms and Slang: Informal language, contractions, or conversational expressions are not used.
Academic Vocabulary: Use of appropriate academic and scientific vocabulary.
Impersonal Voice: Reinforces the objectivity discussed earlier.

Referencing and Citation: Proper attribution of sources is fundamental to academic integrity and the advancement of science.

Acknowledging Prior Work: All ideas, data, and methods drawn from other sources must be cited. This acknowledges the contributions of others and builds upon existing knowledge.
Preventing Plagiarism: Rigorous citation practices are essential to avoid presenting others’ work as one’s own.
Citation Styles: Different disciplines or journals may prescribe specific citation styles (e.g., APA for some social sciences/biology, IEEE for engineering/computer science, Vancouver for medicine, ACS for chemistry). Consistency within a document is crucial.

Reproducibility and Verifiability: A cornerstone of the scientific method, the ability for others to replicate an experiment and verify findings is paramount.

The Methods section is specifically designed to enable this by providing enough detail for another researcher to reproduce the study.
This includes details about materials (e.g., specific chemical grades, organism strains), equipment (e.g., manufacturer, model numbers), and procedures (e.g., temperature, time, concentrations, steps taken).

Focus on Methodology: In addition to enabling reproducibility, a detailed methodology section validates the findings. The soundness of the methods directly impacts the credibility of the results. Authors must justify their choices of experimental design, controls, and analytical techniques.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data Presentation: While quantitative data (numbers, statistics) are dominant, qualitative data (e.g., observations in biology, descriptions of material properties in engineering) are also used. Both must be presented clearly and integrated with textual explanations. Effective data visualization is key, as is the ability to interpret and explain what the data signifies.

Critical Analysis and Interpretation: Beyond merely presenting facts, scientific writing requires critical analysis. In the discussion section, authors must:

Explain why the results are significant.
Discuss how the results fit with, contradict, or expand upon previous research.
Identify limitations of the study and potential sources of error.
Propose future research directions based on the findings.

Ethical Considerations: Especially in applied sciences like medicine, engineering, and certain biological studies, academic writing must address ethical aspects. This includes:

Reporting ethical approvals from institutional review boards (IRBs) or ethics committees.
Confirming informed consent from human subjects.
Adherence to animal welfare guidelines.
Declaration of conflicts of interest.

In essence, academic writing in natural and applied sciences is a highly structured, precise, and objective form of communication. It serves as the primary mechanism for sharing new knowledge, validating findings, and building upon the collective understanding of the natural world and its practical applications. The adherence to these features ensures that scientific discourse is rigorous, reliable, and contributes meaningfully to human progress.

The natural sciences, driven by a quest for fundamental understanding, lay the theoretical groundwork for how the universe operates. Physics unravels the basic laws of energy and matter, chemistry explores the composition and transformation of substances, and biology investigates the intricate mechanisms of life itself. These core disciplines, along with Earth sciences and astronomy, collectively build a comprehensive framework of knowledge about the natural world.

Applied sciences, on the other hand, take this foundational knowledge and translate it into practical solutions for real-world problems. Engineering exemplifies this by designing and building technologies based on scientific principles, while medicine applies biological and chemical insights to human health. Fields like computer science, agricultural sciences, and biotechnology further demonstrate how theoretical understanding can be leveraged to create tangible benefits and advance human capabilities.

The academic writing shared across both natural and applied sciences serves as the critical conduit for disseminating this knowledge. Its defining characteristics—objectivity, precision, clarity, reliance on empirical evidence, and highly structured presentation—reflect the scientific method’s core values. This rigorous approach ensures that scientific discourse is rigorous, reliable, and contributes meaningfully to human progress.