The 17th century in England was a period of extraordinary upheaval and transformation, marked by civil war, regicide, the establishment and collapse of a republic, and finally, the Restoration of the monarchy. This turbulent backdrop profoundly shaped the intellectual and artistic landscape, giving rise to some of the most influential figures in English literature and thought. Amidst this ferment, three towering intellectuals, all named John, emerged as pivotal forces, each leaving an indelible mark on the development of English prose, poetry, and philosophy. These “three Johns”—John Milton, John Dryden, and John Locke—though distinct in their primary fields of endeavor, collectively represent the diverse currents and intellectual vigor of an era grappling with profound questions of faith, power, reason, and human nature.

Their contributions span the epic, the dramatic, the satirical, and the philosophical, embodying the transition from Renaissance humanism to early Enlightenment rationalism. John Milton, the Puritan poet, channeled classical epic traditions and profound theological reflection into works that sought to “justify the ways of God to men.” John Dryden, the archetypal Restoration writer, excelled as a dramatist, satirist, and literary critic, defining the neoclassical aesthetic of his age. John Locke, the philosopher, laid the intellectual groundwork for modern liberal thought, fundamentally altering understandings of government, knowledge, and individual rights. Together, these three Johns not only produced foundational texts but also shaped the very trajectory of English language and thought for centuries to come, reflecting the profound intellectual shifts occurring in a nation redefining itself.

John Milton: The Puritan Poet and Defender of Liberty

John Milton (1608-1674) stands as one of the greatest poets in the English literature and language, renowned for his majestic epic poem, Paradise Lost. Born into a prosperous Puritan family, Milton received an exceptional classical education, excelling in languages, literature, and theology. His early ambition was to write a great English epic, but the political turmoil of his time diverted his focus for two decades. A staunch republican and Puritan, Milton became a prominent intellectual voice for the Commonwealth government under Oliver Cromwell, serving as Latin Secretary, responsible for foreign correspondence and propaganda. During this period, he penned numerous prose tracts defending republicanism, freedom of speech, and religious liberty, even as his eyesight failed, rendering him completely blind by 1652.

Milton’s literary contributions are vast and multi-faceted. His early works, such as the masque Comus (1634) and the pastoral elegy Lycidas (1637), showcase his lyrical mastery, classical erudition, and nascent Puritan sensibilities. Lycidas, mourning the death of a friend, blends classical pastoral conventions with sharp critiques of corrupt clergy, foreshadowing Milton’s later engagement with profound theological and political themes.

However, Milton’s enduring legacy rests primarily on his late epic poems, composed after the Restoration of the monarchy, during a period of personal and political disillusionment. Paradise Lost (1667, revised 1674), his magnum opus, is an epic poem in twelve books written in blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter). It retells the biblical story of the Fall of Man, focusing on Satan’s rebellion against God, his expulsion from Heaven, and his subsequent temptation of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. The poem’s scope is cosmic, encompassing Heaven, Hell, and the newly created Earth. Milton employs vast classical and biblical allusions, crafting a language that is grand, ornate, and deeply resonant. His portrayal of Satan, often seen as a tragic hero defying an omnipotent tyrant, has fascinated readers for centuries, leading some critics to famously quip that Milton was “of the Devil’s party without knowing it.” Beyond the theological narrative, Paradise Lost explores profound themes of free will, predestination, divine justice, obedience, temptation, and the nature of good and evil. Its elevated style, complex syntax, and philosophical depth elevate it to a status comparable to the epics of Homer and Virgil, firmly establishing it as England’s national epic.

Following Paradise Lost, Milton published Paradise Regained (1671), a shorter epic focusing on Christ’s temptation in the wilderness, and Samson Agonistes (1671), a dramatic poem modeled on Greek tragedy. Samson Agonistes recounts the final days of the blind, imprisoned Samson, a figure with whom Milton, in his own blindness and political isolation, deeply identified. It explores themes of divine purpose, individual suffering, and ultimate redemption through sacrifice.

Milton’s prose works, though less read today than his poetry, were groundbreaking in their own right. Areopagitica (1644), a powerful argument against censorship and for freedom of the press, remains a cornerstone of free speech advocacy. His other political tracts, such as The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649), which defended the execution of Charles I, and Divorce Tracts, arguing for the legality of divorce, demonstrate his radical thinking and unwavering commitment to what he perceived as truth and liberty, even when unpopular. Milton’s prose style is often dense and Latinate, reflecting his classical training, yet it can also achieve moments of powerful rhetoric and passionate argumentation.

Milton’s contribution to English literature lies in his audacious ambition to craft a Christian epic of universal significance, his masterful command of blank verse, his profound engagement with theological and philosophical questions, and his innovative use of language. He elevated English poetry to new heights of grandeur and moral seriousness, influencing generations of poets, most notably the Romantics like William Blake and William Wordsworth, who admired his spiritual vision and commitment to liberty.

John Dryden: The Architect of Restoration Literature

John Dryden (1631-1700) was the dominant literary figure of the English Restoration period, a versatile writer who excelled as a poet, playwright, and literary critic. Often referred to as the “Father of English Criticism,” Dryden’s career spanned the tumultuous years of the Interregnum and firmly established itself during the reign of Charles II. His ability to adapt to changing political and literary currents, moving from a youthful sympathy for the Puritans to a staunch Royalist and later, a Catholic convert, reflects the pragmatism and intellectual agility characteristic of the age. Appointed Poet Laureate in 1668, Dryden virtually single-handedly shaped the neoclassical aesthetic that defined Restoration and early 18th-century literature.

Dryden’s dramatic output was prolific and varied, reflecting the tastes of the Restoration stage. He wrote heroic plays, a genre characterized by exaggerated plots, noble characters, and the use of rhymed couplets (often referred to as “heroic couplets”). The Conquest of Granada (1672) is a prime example of this genre. However, his most enduring contribution to drama is arguably All for Love (1678), a masterful blank-verse tragedy based on Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. Dryden’s version, adhering more closely to neoclassical unities of time and place, showcases his skill in character psychology and dramatic tension, solidifying his reputation as a tragedian. He also wrote highly successful Restoration comedies of manners, such as Marriage à la Mode (1672), which satirized the social conventions, intrigues, and witty banter of the fashionable elite. These plays are celebrated for their sharp dialogue, cynical humor, and lively portrayal of urban society.

It is in his satirical verse that Dryden truly shone and left an indelible mark on English poetry. He perfected the heroic couplet (a pair of rhyming iambic pentameter lines) as a vehicle for wit, precision, and incisive social and political commentary. His greatest satires are allegorical and topical, responding directly to the political crises of his time. Absalom and Achitophel (1681), written during the Exclusion Crisis (a political battle over the succession to the throne), is a brilliant political allegory that satirizes figures like the Earl of Shaftesbury and the Duke of Monmouth, casting them in biblical roles. Its biting wit, controlled indignation, and formal elegance make it a masterpiece of political satire. Mac Flecknoe (c. 1679, published 1682), a mock-heroic poem, mercilessly lampoons the poet Thomas Shadwell, declaring him the rightful successor to the “kingdom of Dullness.” This poem established the mock-heroic as a potent form of literary satire, influencing later writers like Alexander Pope.

Beyond poetry and drama, Dryden was a towering figure in literary criticism. His prose works, particularly An Essay of Dramatic Poesy (1668), are foundational texts in English literary theory. Written as a dialogue, the Essay debates the merits of classical versus modern drama, French versus English theatre, and rhyme versus blank verse. Dryden champions English drama, praises Shakespeare, and articulates the principles of neoclassical aesthetics: reason, order, decorum, and imitation of classical models, adapted for modern sensibilities. His critical prose is characterized by its clarity, directness, logical argumentation, and elegant style, setting a new standard for English literary discourse. He also undertook significant translation projects, including the works of Virgil, Horace, and Juvenal, further enriching the English literary canon and demonstrating his mastery of classical forms.

Dryden’s contribution to literature is immense. He solidified the heroic couplet as the dominant verse form for the next century, perfected the art of political and literary satire, defined the critical principles of the neoclassical age, and shaped the Restoration stage. His lucid prose style and insightful literary criticism laid the groundwork for future literary discourse. He served as a crucial bridge between the exuberant creativity of the Renaissance and the more ordered, rational sensibilities of the 18th-century Age of Reason.

John Locke: The Philosopher of the Enlightenment

John Locke (1632-1704), while primarily a philosopher and political theorist rather than a poet or dramatist, was undeniably one of the most influential “Johns” of the 17th century, whose ideas profoundly reshaped Western thought and, by extension, influenced the themes, intellectual currents, and very possibility of certain literary forms for centuries to come. Born into a Puritan family and educated at Oxford, Locke’s diverse interests spanned medicine, science, and politics. He became closely associated with Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury, a leading Whig politician, whose political fortunes deeply influenced Locke’s life and writings, including periods of exile.

Locke’s most monumental philosophical work is An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689). This treatise laid the foundation for modern empiricism, arguing that the human mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate), and all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and reflection upon that experience. Locke systematically explored the origins of ideas, distinguishing between simple and complex ideas, and between primary qualities (inherent properties of objects, like extension and solidity) and secondary qualities (perceived properties, like color and sound, which depend on an observer). The Essay challenged the prevailing notion of innate ideas and emphasized the importance of observation and experience in the acquisition of knowledge. Its impact on epistemology, psychology, and educational theory was revolutionary, paving the way for the scientific method and Enlightenment rationalism. This focus on individual experience and the development of consciousness would later be crucial for the rise of the novel, which often explores the interiority and growth of individual characters.

Equally transformative were Locke’s political writings, particularly his Two Treatises of Government (1689). Written partly to justify the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which deposed James II and established a constitutional monarchy, the Treatises articulated the core tenets of liberal democracy. In the First Treatise, Locke refutes the divine right of kings. In the Second Treatise, he develops his theory of natural rights, asserting that all individuals possess inherent rights to “life, liberty, and property,” granted by God and existing prior to government. He argued that government is established by a social contract among individuals to protect these rights, and its legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed. If a government infringes upon these natural rights, the people have a right to resist and overthrow it. Locke’s ideas on popular sovereignty, limited government, and the right to revolution profoundly influenced Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu, and were instrumental in shaping the American Declaration of Independence and the French Revolution.

Other significant works include Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693), which advocated for a progressive, child-centered approach to education, emphasizing practical skills, moral development, and the cultivation of reason rather than rote learning. His A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) argued for religious freedom and the separation of church and state, a radical proposition for his time, though he excluded Catholics and atheists from this toleration.

Locke’s contribution to literature, while not in the traditional sense of poetry or drama, is profound and multifaceted. Firstly, his prose style itself was highly influential. Unlike the more ornate or Latinate prose of some of his predecessors, Locke’s writing is remarkably clear, concise, logical, and direct. He developed a plain, analytical style that became a model for philosophical and scientific discourse, influencing the development of English prose towards greater clarity and precision, characteristic of the Age of Reason. Secondly, his ideas fundamentally shaped the intellectual and philosophical landscape that undergirded much 18th-century literature. His emphasis on empiricism, individual experience, reason, and natural rights provided the intellectual framework for the Enlightenment. These concepts permeate the works of subsequent writers, fostering a literary interest in individual psychology, social contract narratives, and critiques of arbitrary power. The rise of realism and the novel as a dominant genre can be seen, in part, as a literary response to Locke’s emphasis on experience and the individual’s consciousness and development within a changing social world. His works moved intellectual thought from a focus on divine revelation and innate ideas to human reason and experience, profoundly impacting not just philosophy and politics but the very way humans understood themselves and their place in the world, which is the perennial subject of literature.

The three Johns of the 17th century—John Milton, John Dryden, and John Locke—stand as monumental figures who collectively defined and transformed English literature and thought during an era of profound societal change. Their distinct yet interwoven contributions highlight the intellectual breadth and artistic dynamism of a century grappling with religious fervor, political upheaval, and the dawn of scientific rationalism.

Milton, the last great voice of the English Renaissance and a fierce Puritan intellectual, elevated epic poetry to its highest form with Paradise Lost, imbuing it with theological depth, moral seriousness, and unparalleled linguistic grandeur. His commitment to liberty, expressed eloquently in both his verse and his polemical prose, left a lasting legacy on the ideals of free thought and expression. Dryden, the quintessential Restoration man of letters, refined and mastered the heroic couplet, defined the neoclassical aesthetic, perfected the art of literary and political satire, and established the foundational principles of English literary criticism. His versatile genius encompassed drama, poetry, and critical prose, bridging the gap between the Elizabethan age and the nascent Augustan era. Locke, the foundational philosopher of the Enlightenment, laid the intellectual cornerstone for modern liberalism and empiricism. His theories of natural rights, government by consent, and the tabula rasa fundamentally reshaped political philosophy, epistemology, and education, providing the conceptual framework for the Age of Reason and influencing the very way subsequent generations would perceive knowledge, selfhood, and governance.

Together, these three Johns represent the intellectual zenith of the 17th century, their works forming the bedrock of modern English literary and philosophical traditions. From Milton’s cosmic vision and Dryden’s satirical wit to Locke’s rigorous empiricism, their collective output not only reflects the complex currents of their time but also continues to resonate with enduring power, shaping our understanding of language, power, knowledge, and the human condition. Their profound and multifaceted legacies ensure their place as architects of modernity, whose influence transcends the boundaries of their individual disciplines.